6 In addition, the improvements noted in our study were unrelated to age, gender or ethnic background. 7 Th is study therefore indicates that the benefi ts gained from stress-management intervention may address QoL needs across a wide range of patients. 8 Most notably, this is the fi rst study to our knowledge to investigate the eff ectiveness of extended psychosocial intervention in patients whose disorder is itself thought to be stress-related. 9 Our results provide compelling evidence for long-term involvement with such patients and suggest that this approach appears to be eff ective in counteracting stress that may exacerbate the disorder. 10 However, some limitations are worth noting. 11 Although our hypotheses were supported statistically, the sample was not reassessed once the programme was over. 12 Future work should therefore include follow-up work designed to evaluate whether the skills are retained in the long term and also whether they continue to be used to improve QoL.
158 Science Research Writing 4.2 Grammar and Writing Skills Th is section deals with a complex language area which is important in the Discussion section: MODAL VERBS. Th e modal verbs that are commonly used in science writing are may, might, could, can, should, ought to, need to, have to and must. Modal verbs which are not used in formal science writing, such as the use of can or may for 'permission' (e.g. Can I borrow your pen?) are not discussed here. Modal verbs are oft en used to modify the 'truth value' of a sentence. In a sentence like: Th e drop in pressure was due to a crack in the pipe. there is no modal verb — you are telling your reader what caused the drop in pressure, and you have empirical evidence to prove it. If, however, you write that: Th e drop in pressure may have been due to a crack in the pipe. you are off ering a possible cause for the drop in pressure; perhaps it was due to a crack in the pipe — and perhaps not. If you write Th e drop in pressure must have been due to a crack in the pipe. you are saying that you are virtually certain that the drop in pressure was caused by a crack in the pipe, but you do not actually have evidence to prove it. Being certain that something is true and knowing it to be true are not the same thing at all. For example, you would not look at your watch and say 'It must be ten o' clock' or 'I'm certain it is ten o' clock' — you would simply say 'It is ten o' clock'. You would be more likely to say 'It must be ten o' clock' when you aren't wearing a watch — in other words, if you aren't really sure, or you lack empirical evidence. Although using the modal verb must seems to give the sentence more power, it also communicates an absence of proof. Modal verbs are particularly useful in the Results and Discussion sections. In these sections you are writing about the reasons, interpretations and implications of your results and you oft en need to communicate that something is a possible reason, or an obvious interpretation or a probable
Discussion/Conclusion — Grammar and Writing Skills 159 implication. Here is a typical sentence from a (combined) Results and Discussion section: Th e kinetics can be described by these equations, suggesting that the electrons are transferred directly. Th is might involve a supercharge mechanism, but the data could also be described by electron transfer via a hopping mechanism. As a short exercise to start thinking about the way these verbs work, try to match the modal verbs in Column A to their meanings in Column B. Most of the modal verbs can be used for more than one meaning. A B 1. SHOULD 2. MUST 3. CAN 4. OUGHT TO 5. MAY 6. COULD ABLE/CAPABLE He ... go home by himself. (He is able to go home by himself.) POSSIBLE/OPTIONAL He ... go home. (It is possible that he will go home.) PROBABLE/LIKELY He ... be home soon. (He will probably be home soon.) VIRTUALLY CERTAIN He ... be at home. (It is virtually certain that he is at home.)
160 Science Research Writing Now check your answers with this Key: A B 7. NEED TO 8. MIGHT 9. HAVE TO ADVISABLE He... go home. (I advise him to go home.) ______________________________ NECESSARY He ... go home. (It is necessary for him to go home.) ABLE/CAPABLE (He can go home by himself.) MAY MIGHT POSSIBLE/OPTIONAL (He may/might/could/can be at home,) PROBABLE/LIKELY (He should/ought to be home soon.) VIRTUALLY CERTAIN (He must/has to be at home.) ADVISABLE (He should/ought to go home.) NEED TO NECESSARY (He must/needs to/has to go home.)
Discussion/Conclusion — Grammar and Writing Skills 161 Th ere are two reasons why these verbs are diffi cult to use. First of all, as you can see, some modal verbs have more than one meaning. Th erefore when you use a verb like should, make sure you know whether you mean that something is likely to happen (or to have happened), or whether you mean that it is advisable for it to happen. Second, most modal verbs do not follow standard grammar rules. Some disappear and others change their meaning in the negative, or in a diff erent tense. For example, He must go home means the same as He has to go home, but He must not go home means that he is not allowed to go home, which is not the same as He doesn't have to go home. Here is a table showing how each of these modal verbs works in the past tense and in the negative, with examples. Th e table does not deal with every possible use of every modal verb. Th e modal verb may, for example, is also used to request permission (May I borrow your pen?) but you are unlikely to need this in science research writing. As the function of this book is to help you write an accurate and acceptable research article, the information in this section has been limited to what you need. 1. ABILITY/CAPABILITY Th is soft ware can distinguish between diff erent viruses. CANNOT Until 18 months a child cannot use symbols to represent objects. COULD HAVE It was found that the gun could shoot accurately even at 300 meters. If we had extended the time period we could have produced more crystals. 1n 1990, 80% of households could not receive digital television. Th e subjects reported that they could not have fallen asleep without medication.
162 Science Research Writing • Th e modal verb can only forms these two tenses when it refers to ABILITY or CAPABILITY. If you need other tenses, you will need to switch to be capable of or be able to, i.e. It is believed that this soft ware will eventually be capable of distinguishing between diff erent viruses. • could means 'was generally capable of doing/able to do something in the past', whereas was able to is used in relation to specifi c past events or past occasions, i.e. Th e result suggests that in this case, the viruses were able to multiply freely. If you're not sure whether to use can or be able to, use be able to — it's safer. 2. POSSIBILITY/OPTIONS MAY MIGHT A rubber seal may/might/could/can be useful at this location. MAY NOT MIGHT NOT (but not COULD NOT or CANNOT) A rubber seal may not/might not be useful at this location. MAY HAVE MIGHT HAVE COULD HAVE (but not CAN HAVE) Th e fall in pressure may have been/might have been/could have been caused by leakage. MAY NOT HAVE MIGHT NOT HAVE (but not COULD NOT HAVE or CANNOT HAVE) Th e fall in pressure may not have been/might not have been caused by leakage. • Th e word 'well' is sometimes added to communicate a stronger belief in the possibility: Th is may well be due to leakage.
Discussion/Conclusion — Grammar and Writing Skills 163 Note: Although ought to means the same as should, it is less common in science writing, so examples have not been given. • might is slightly weaker than may. • Interestingly, can not and cannot don't mean the same thing at all! can not means possibly not in the same way as may not or might not, but it is rarely used except in structures such as 'this can not only damage the sample, it may even destroy it completely'. cannot, on the other hand, means something completely diff erent: it doesn't mean possibly not, it means impossible. could not, cannot, could not have and cannot have all fall into this category. In sentences like: We realise that this cannot be due to a change in pressure. We realised that this could not be due to a change in pressure. We realise that this cannot have been due to a change in pressure. We realised that this could not have been due to a change in pressure. Th e writer is not saying 'possibly not', s/he is saying 'impossible'. 3. PROBABILITY/BELIEF/EXPECTATION Th e material should remain stable if it is kept below 30°C. Th e material should not decompose unless heated above 30°C. SHOULD HAVE OUGHT TO HAVE By the time the cobalt is added, the crystals should have dissolved. SHOULD NOT HAVE Th is was unexpected; the material should not have decomposed at this temperature.
164 Science Research Writing • 'virtual certainty' modals communicate the fact that no other explanation is possible. • have to is less common in science writing, so examples have not been given. • must not means 'not allowed/permitted', it doesn't mean 'not possible'. To separate Categories 2, 3 and 4, imagine that it normally takes Professor Windblast about 20 minutes to walk home from his laboratory. Has he arrived home yet? Well, you won't know unless you call his house and speak to him, but • if he left the lab 18 minutes ago, he may/might/could be home by now (possibly) 4. VIRTUAL CERTAINTY Our results indicate that contamination must be due to the presence of sea water in the pipe. CANNOT It is clear that contamination cannot/could not be due to the presence of sea water in the pipe. MUST HAVE Our results indicate that contamination must have been due to the presence of sea water in the pipe. CANNOT HAVE COULD NOT HAVE It was clear that contamination could not be/ cannot have been/could not have been due to the presence of sea water in the pipe.
Discussion/Conclusion — Grammar and Writing Skills 165 • Although ought to means the same as should, it is less common in science writing, and that is why examples have not been given. • should have /ought to have usually refer to something that didn't occur and should not have/ought not to have usually refer to something that did. • if he left 30 minutes ago, he should/ought to be home by now (probably) • if he left 50 minutes ago, he must be home by now (almost certainly) • if he left 5 minutes ago he cannot be home yet (almost certainly not) 5. ADVICE/ OPINION Th e apparatus should be disconnected from the mains during repairs. Th is material should not be exposed to sunlight SHOULD HAVE OUGHT TO HAVE Th e apparatus should have been disconnected from the mains during repairs. Th is material should not have been exposed to sunlight
166 Science Research Writing • We did not need to/did not have to heat the valves before use does not indicate whether or not you actually heated the valves, whereas we need not have heated the valves before use implies that you did heat them, but that it wasn't necessary. • Must not means 'not allowed', it doesn't mean 'not necessary'. MODAL SENTENCES EXERCISE Complete the sentences using could, must, may, should, might, ought to, need to, can, have to. Make sure you use the right tense and don't forget to use negative forms where necessary. 1. Perhaps the damage was caused by heat exposure.
2. We felt sure that the damage was caused by heat exposure.
3. No way was the damage caused by heat exposure.
4. We don't expect heat exposure to cause any damage.
Heat exposure ___________________________________________ 6. NECESSITY/OBLIGATION NEED TO Th e apparatus must/needs to/ has to be disconnected from the mains during repairs. NEED NOT DO NOT NEED TO DO NOT HAVE TO Th e apparatus need not/does not need to/does not have to be disconnected from the mains during repairs. NEEDED TO HAD TO We needed to/had to heat the valves before use. DID NOT NEED TO DID NOT HAVE TO NEED NOT HAVE We did not need to/did not have to heat the valves before use. We need not have heated the valves before use.
Discussion/Conclusion — Writing Task 167 5. It's possible that the damage wasn't caused by heat exposure.
6. I advise you to heat it.
It ______________________________________________________ 7. I don't think it was a good idea to expose it to heat.
It ______________________________________________________ KEY 1. Th e damage may have been/might have been/could have been caused by heat exposure. 2. Th e damage must have been caused by heat exposure. 3. Th e damage cannot have been/could not have been caused by heat exposure. 4. Heat exposure should not cause any damage. 5. Th e damage may not have been/might not have been caused by heat exposure. 6. It should be heated. 7. It should not have been exposed to heat. 4.3 Writing Task: Build a Model 4.3.1 Building a model You are now ready to begin building a model of this section, First, write a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided below. Th e Key is on the next page. Once you have tried to produce your own model you can use the Key to help you write this section of a research article when you eventually do it on your own.
168 Science Research Writing GUIDELINES You should spend 30–45 minutes on this task. If you can't think of a good description of the fi rst sentence, choose an easier one, for example Sentence 3, and start with that. Remember that your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other Discussions/Conclusions, so don't include content words such as stress or you won't be able to use your model to generate Discussions/Conclusions in your own fi eld. Remember that one way to fi nd out what the writer is doing in a sentence, rather than what s/he is saying, is to imagine that your computer has accidentally deleted it. What changes for you, as a reader, when it disappears? If you press another key on the computer and the sentence comes back, how does that aff ect the way you respond to the information? As mentioned in previous sections, another way to fi gure out what the writer is doing in a sentence — rather than what s/he is saying — is to look at the grammar and vocabulary clues. What is the tense of the main verb? What is that tense normally used for? Is it the same tense as in the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense? What words has the writer chosen to use? Don't expect to produce a perfect model. You will modify your model when you look at the Key, and perhaps again when you compare it to the way Discussion/Conclusion sections work in your target articles. Cognitive-behavioural stress management (CBSM) skills and quality of life in stress- related disorders Discussion