2 min, the stoichiometry is 89 and 47 mol O3/mol TCP at pH 2 and 7.5, respectively.
Results — Writing Task 131 An indication of the reaction mechanism during the ozonation of TCP is given by the extent of dechlorination. Recent studies (Han et al., 1998; Chu and Wong, 2003) have suggested one specifi c mechanism whereby a hydroxyl group replaces one chlorine atom to form 2,6-dichloro-benzo-1,4-quinone (DCQ), as indicated in Fig. 3. From this it can be seen that the reaction leads to a reduction in solution pH through the formation of HCl. To investigate this, the ozonation of TCP at various initial pH levels was carried out without the use of a pH buff er and the results are summarized in Fig. 4. Evidence of signifi cant proton generation was observed, and the rate of pH reduction increased with the initial pH of the solution. In the reaction scheme shown in Fig. 3, only one chlorine in the TCP is substituted by a hydroxyl group to produce DCQ, H+ and Cl-. However, it is likely that further dechlorination of the remaining two chlorine atoms is possible under favourable conditions, such as at high pH where substantial hydroxyl radical generation occurs. It can be seen from Fig. 4 that for the ozone reaction at the initial pH of 8.17 the change in the solution pH suggested a proton generation equivalent to approximately 1 mM, which is stoichiometrically close to the total chlorine mass of the original TCP (0.88 mM). However, it should be noted that DCQ can be further degraded by cleavage of the aromatic ring leading to the formation of aliphatic products. Th ese in turn may react with ozone to form organic acids, such as formic acid and acetic glycolic acids (Abe and Tanaka, 1997), thereby reducing the solution pH. Direct measurements of chloride concentration were made during the buff ered ozone tests and these are shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that the degradation of TCP (each molecule having three chlorine atoms) generates signifi cant chloride ions as one of the major products. Th e number of chloride ions released during the TCP degradation was found to range between 1.5 and 1.9 per degraded molecule of TCP, with the number in this range systematically increasing with the extent of TCP degraded. Since this is an average value for the reaction, it indicates that dechlorination is a major reaction mechanism and suggests that for a proportion of the TCP molecules there may be complete dechlorination.
132 Science Research Writing Since it is speculated that at pH 7.5 a major part of the TCP reaction is via hydroxyl radical attack, it was thought that the generation of OH radicals may be limited in the presence of the carbonate buff er. To enhance the concentration of radicals the tests were repeated in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2/ HO−2 is a promoter of radical-type chain reactions) and the comparative results can be seen in Fig. 5. Th e concentration of hydrogen peroxide (15 mM) used in this case corresponded to a fi nal H2O2:O3 mass ratio of 0.8 g/g. It can be observed from Fig. 5 that there was only a very small enhancement (~5%) of TCP degradation when H2O2 was present during the ozonation. A similar eff ect was observed with a lower H2O2 concentration (7.5 mM) indicating that H2O2 concentration was not a sensitive factor. In contrast, there was a much greater production of chloride, with the number of chloride ions released during the TCP degradation ranging between 1.7 and 2.7 per degraded molecule of TCP, with the number in this range systematically increasing with the extent of TCP degraded. Th is considerably higher productivity of chloride ions, without a proportional increase in TCP degradation, suggests that the O3/ H2O2 oxidising conditions are able to readily release chloride from intermediate compounds formed from the TCP degradation. It is assumed that the reaction with intermediate compounds is principally through OH∙ radicals, but direct H2O2 oxidation may also occur. 3.3. Degradation of TCP with humic acid Humic substances (e.g. humic acid) are typically present in signifi cant quantities (2–20 mg/l) in natural, and wastewaters. Th ey have been shown to have a complex behaviour in ozone reactions in that they can act as initiators, promoters and scavengers of hydroxyl radicals, as well as being a substrate for molecular ozone reactions. Previous studies (e.g. with atrazine; Xiong and Graham, 1992b) have shown that relatively low concentrations of humic substances can substantially enhance the degradation of organic substrates, while higher concentrations can greatly reduce the degradation. A similar approach was used in this study in which the rate of degradation of 2,4,6-TCP was determined in the
Results — Writing Task 133 presence of diff erent concentrations of HA. Th e results are shown in Fig. 6(a) and the TCP degradation curves were found to fi t a pseudo-fi rst-order model (R2 = 0.997–0.999); the pseudo- fi rst- order rate constants are shown in Table 2. It can be seen in Table 2 that the peak degradation rate occurred in the presence of approximately 17 mg/l (as TOC) of HA, corresponding to a HA:TCP mass ratio of 0.43. Th e maximum increase in degradation rate is approximately 25% (cf. in the absence of HA). At a HA concentration of 56.1 mg/l, and presumably higher concentrations, the degradation rate decreased relative to that in the absence of HA. In comparison, Xiong and Graham (1992b) found that the optimal degradation of atrazine occurred at a mass ratio of humic substances (as DOC)-to-atrazine of 1.8. However, since only part of the humic substances would be HA, the corresponding HA:atrazine ratio would be lower, and therefore closer to the values shown in Table 2. A further comparison can be made between the enhanced TCP degradation caused by the presence of HA with that caused by hydrogen peroxide. Fig. 6(b) compares the TCP degradation rates for the optimal HA concentration (16.8 mg/l TOC) with 516 mg/l of H2O2 (≡ 15 mM; H2O2:O3 fi nal mass ratio of 0.8 g/g). If it can be assumed that the enhanced degradation rates in both cases is the result of increased OH∙ radical production, then it appears that the HA was more eff ective than the hydrogen peroxide. An examination of the relationship between fl owering times and temperature at the national scale using long- term phenological records from the UK Results Mean dates and standard deviations of dates, together with extreme early and late dates for all species, are shown in Table 1. It is apparent, and was noted by Jeff ree (1960), that there is a bias towards extreme lateness for early-season species, which is less obvious, or even reversed, in later species. Th is is demonstrated in Fig. 2, where the 11 species for which 58 years of data are available
134 Science Research Writing are presented as box plots. Th e vertical dashed line represents the standardised mean of 0 days and asterisks represent extreme years. It is apparent that the species at the bottom of the fi gure (the earliest species) have more extreme late years and those at the top (the late species) have more extreme early years. A summary of the stepwise regression models is given in Table 2. All but 1 of the 25 models was highly signifi cant (P < 0.001). In general, coeffi cients for months close to the mean fl owering date were negative, indicating that warmer temperatures promoted earlier fl owering. At the same time, autumn coeffi cients were generally smaller and positive, indicating that some vernalisation requirement was necessary but also that the autumn infl uence was smaller than that of spring. Whilst the high number of comparisons suggests that some model terms would be included by chance alone, only the model for the autumn crocus looks peculiar, with a strong, positive infl uence of the previous autumn. Th e result of summing all of the regression coeffi cients together (see Table 2) suggests a response to warming of 2–10 days per °C, the greatest response being shown by the "midseason" species. Only the autumn crocus produces a positive response, suggesting that the remaining species would all fl ower earlier, sometimes substantially so, under climate warming. Figure 3 shows the response of all 25 events to the single monthly CET to which they are most closely correlated. Although most regression models included multiple terms, the temperature for a single month is used for simplicity because display against several months simultaneously is not straightforward. Also in Fig. 3, the response of the autumn crocus to the June CET is shown, confi rming that a negative response to summer temperature does exist, albeit apparently overwhelmed by the eff ect of the previous autumn. Finally, in Fig. 3, horse-chestnut fl owering times are shown in relation to the mean March–May CET. A comparison with the simpler relationship with the April CET confi rms that relationships are tighter when the temperatures of many months are considered together.
Results — Vocabulary 135 Now do the same in your target articles. We hope you obtain good confi rmation of the model and can answer the three questions at the beginning of this section: • How do I start this section? What type of sentence should I begin with? • What type of information should be in this section, and in what order? • How do I end this section? 3.4 Vocabulary In order to complete the information you need to write this section of your paper you now need to fi nd appropriate vocabulary for each part of the model. Th e vocabulary in this section is taken from over 600 research articles in diff erent fi elds, all of which were written by native speakers and published in science journals. Only words/phrases which appear frequently have been included; this means that the vocabulary lists contain words and phrases which are considered normal and acceptable by both writers and editors. In the next section we will look at vocabulary for the following seven areas of the model: 1. REVISITING THE RESEARCH AIM/EXISTING RESEARCH Th is includes ways to remind the reader of what was said earlier. You should signal this (As mentioned earlier,) and then use the same words or phrases that you used originally — probably in the Introduction — to create an 'echo' for the reader. 2. GENERAL OVERVIEW OF RESULTS Th is includes ways to introduce the general pattern or trend of your results so that the reader knows what to expect. Phrases like in most cases are common here. 3. INVITATION TO VIEW RESULTS You can't always write Figure 1 shows... Figures and tables don't always show things; sometimes they present things or summarise things.
136 Science Research Writing 4. SPECIFIC/KEY RESULTS IN DETAIL Th e language used to describe specifi c results includes both language which provides an objective description of the results (lower) and subjective, evaluative language (signifi cantly lower/slightly lower). 5. COMPARISONS WITH RESULTS IN OTHER RESEARCH Th is includes the language you may need to compare your results with those of other researchers, to use their results to confi rm/support yours and to compare your results with predictions, models or simulations. Phrases like is in line with and correlate well with are common here. 6. PROBLEMS WITH RESULTS Remember that research is not necessarily invalidated by inappropriate results, provided they are presented in a conventional, professional way. Phrases such as minor defi cit and not within the scope of this study will help you here. 7. POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS OF RESULTS Suggestions about what your results imply are a pivotal point in a paper, and signal the move towards the Discussion/Conclusion. Phrases such as Th is indicated/suggested/implied that and It seems therefore that are useful here; you can add some qualifying language as 'weakeners' if you want to reduce your risk and responsibility. 3.4.1 Vocabulary task Look through the Results sections in this unit and in each of your target articles. Underline or highlight all the words and phrases that you think could be used in each of the seven areas given above. A full list of useful language can be found on the following pages. Th is includes all the words and phrases you highlighted from the Results sections in this unit, together with some other common ones which you may have seen in your target articles. Underneath each list you will fi nd examples of how they are used. Read through the list and check the meaning of any you don't know in the dictionary. Th is list will be useful for many years.
Results — Vocabulary 137 3.4.2 Vocabulary for the Results section 1. REVISITING THE RESEARCH AIM/EXISTING RESEARCH as discussed previously, as mentioned earlier/before, as outlined in the introduction, as reported, in order to..., we examined... it is important to reiterate that... it is known from the literature that... it was predicted that... our aim/purpose/intention was to... since/because..., we investigated... the aforementioned theory/aim/prediction etc. to investigate..., we needed to... we reasoned/predicted that... • Since the angular alignment is critical, the eff ect of an error in orientation was investigated experimentally. • We reasoned that an interaction in one network between proteins that are far apart in the other network may be a technology-specifi c artifact. • In earlier studies attempts were made to establish degradation rate constants by undertaking ozonation experiments. • Th e main purpose of this work was to test algorithm performance. • As mentioned previously, the aim of the tests was to construct a continuous crack propagation history. • In this work, we sought to establish a methodology for the synthesis of a benzoxazine skeleton. • It was suggested in the Introduction that the eff ective stress paths may be used to defi ne local bounding surfaces.
138 Science Research Writing GENERAL OVERVIEW OF RESULTS generally speaking, in general, in most/all cases, in the main, in this section, we compare/evaluate/present... it is apparent that in all/most/the majority of cases, it is evident from the results that... on the whole the overall response was... the results are divided into two parts as follows: using the method described above, we obtained... • It is apparent that both fi lms exhibit typical mesoporous structures. • It is evident that these results are in good agreement with their FE counterparts. • In general, coeffi cients for months close to the mean fl owering data were negative. • Our confi dence scores have an overall strong concordance with previous predictions • On the whole, the strains and defl ections recorded from the FE model follow similar patterns to those recorded from the vacuum rig tests. • Levels of weight loss were similar in all cases. INVITATION TO VIEW RESULTS (data not shown) (Fig. 1) (see also Fig. 1) (see Fig. 1) (see Figs. 1–3) according to Fig. 1 as can be seen from/in* Fig.1 Figure 1: contains
corresponds (to)
demonstrates
displays
gives
illustrates
lists
Results — Vocabulary 139 *from means 'can be deduced/concluded from' the fi gure/table whereas in means that it actually 'appears in' the fi gure/table • Th e stress data in Fig. 18 indicate a more reasonable relationship. • Figure 3 illustrates the fi ndings of the spatial time activity modelling. • Th e overall volume changes are reported in Fig. 6(d). • Similar results were found aft er loading GzmA into the cells (data not shown). • Typical cyclic voltammograms can be seen in Fig. 1. • Comparing Figs. 1 and 4 shows that volumetric strains developed aft er pore pressure had dissipated. as detailed in Fig.1 as evident from/in the fi gure as illustrated by Fig. 1 as indicated in. Fig.1 as listed in Fig.1 as shown in Fig.1 as we can see from/in Fig.1... can be found in Fig.1 can be identifi ed from/in Fig.1 can be observed in Fig. 1 can be seen from/in Figure 1 comparing Figs. 1 and 4 shows that... data in Fig. 1 suggest that... displayed in Fig. 1 evidence for this is in Fig. 1 from Fig. 1 it can be seen that... inspection of Fig. 1 indicates... is/are given in Fig.1 is/are represented (etc.) in is/are visible in Fig. 1 in Fig. 1 we compare/present etc... results are given in Fig.1 we observe from Fig. 1 that...
plots
presents
provides
reports
represents
reveals
shows
summarises
140 Science Research Writing • Th e rate constants shown in Table 1 demonstrate that the reactivity is much greater at neutral pH. • Th e results are summarised in Table 4. SPECIFIC/KEY RESULTS IN DETAIL When you look at your target articles, you will notice that it is harder to fi nd examples of the language used to provide an objective description of the results than it is to fi nd examples of the language used to provide a subjective description of the results, and that when it does occur, objective language is likely to be modifi ed by a subjective 'add-on'. For example, a phrase like slightly lower or much lower is found more oft en than lower on its own. Th is is because, as mentioned earlier, an objective description of the results does not tell readers anything they don't already know from looking at the fi gure. If you are having diffi culty seeing the diff erence between objective and subjective language, remember that describing one level or quantity as being higher than another is an objective truth; to describe a level or quantity as high is a subjective evaluation. (i) Objective descriptions accelerate(d) all change(d) decline(d) decrease(d) delay(ed) drop(ped) exist(ed) expand(ed) fall/fell fi nd/found increase(d) is/are/was/were constant is/are/was/were diff erent is/are/was/were equal is/are/was/were found is/are/was/were higher is/are/was/were highest is/are/was/were identical is/are/was/were lower is/are/was/were present is/are/was/were seen is/are/was/were unaff ected is/are/was/were unchanged is/are/was/were uniform match(ed) none occur(red) peak(ed) precede(d) produce(d) reduce(d) remain(ed) constant remained the same rise/rose sole/ly vary/varied Numerical representations of percentages, levels, locations, amounts etc., i.e. a 2% increase are, of course, also 'objective'.
Results — Vocabulary 141 • Th ere was a lower proportion of large particles present at lower pH. • As can be seen in Fig. 8, there were diff erent horizontal and vertical directional pseudofunctions. • As can be seen, in the second trial the level of switching among uninformed travellers was unchanged. • Th is kind of delamination did not occur anywhere else. • Th e CTOA dropped from its initial high value to a constant angle of 4º. • It eventually levelled off at a terminal velocity of 300 m/s. (ii) Subjective descriptions abundant(ly) acceptable(ably) adequate(ly) almost appreciable(ably) appropriate(ly) brief/(ly) clear(ly) comparable (ably) considerable(ably) consistent(ly) distinct(ly) dominant(ly) dramatic(ally) drastic(ally) equivalent essential(ly) excellent excessive(ly) exceptional(ly) extensive(ly) extreme(ly) fair(ly) few imperceptible(ibly) important(ly) in particular, in principle inadequate interesting(ly), it appears that large(ly) likelihood low main(ly) marked(ly) measurable(ably) mild(ly) minimal(ly) more or less most(ly) negligible(ibly) noticeable(ably) obvious(ly) only overwhelming(ly) poor(ly) remarkable(ably) resembling satisfactory scarce(ly) serious(ly) severe(ly) sharp(ly) signifi cant(ly) similar simple(ply) smooth(ly) somewhat steep(ly) striking(ly) strong(ly) substantial(ly) sudden(ly) suffi cient(ly) suitable(ably) surprising(ly) tendency the majority of too + adjective unexpected(ly)
142 Science Research Writing PLUS all the rest of the language from the frequency and quantity lists (Sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3). Here are some examples of how these are used (including examples from the frequency and quantity lists): • In the majority of cases, SEM analysis revealed a considerably higher percentage of fi ne material. • As can be seen, the higher injection rate gave satisfactory results from all three methods. • Similar behaviour was observed in all cases, with no sudden changes. • It can be seen in Fig. 5 that the Kalman fi lter gives an excellent estimate of the heat released. • Th e eff ect on the relative performance was dramatic. • A striking illustration of this can be seen in Fig. 5. • Comparing Figs. 4 and 5, it is obvious that a signifi cant improvement was obtained in the majority of cases. • It can be observed from Fig. 5 that the patterns are essentially the same in both cases. • Figure 1 shows a fairly consistent material. • It can be observed from Fig. 2 that there was only a very small enhancement when H2O2 was present. COMPARISONS WITH OTHER RESULTS If you are referring to other research, make sure that the location of the reference citation or number is accurate or other researchers may end up 'owning' your work. Remember that the right place for a research reference is not necessarily at the end of a sentence. general(ly) high(ly) immense(ly) powerful(ly) quick(ly) radical(ly) rapid(ly) unusual(ly) valuable very virtual(ly)
Results — Vocabulary 143 Many of these can be modifi ed to match the level of certainty you want to express by adding expression such as: It seems that It appears that It is likely that (See Section 3.2.4 for more of these.) • It is evident that the SFS results obtained here are in exceptionally good agreement with existing FE results. • Distributions are almost identical in both cases. • Our concordance scores strongly confi rm previous predictions. • We see that the numerical model tends to give predictions that are parallel to the experimental data from corresponding tests. • Th ese results demonstrate that improved correlation with the experimental results was achieved using the new mesh. • Th is is consistent with results obtained in [1]. as anticipated as expected, as predicted by... as reported by... compare well with concur confi rm consistent with contrary to corroborate correlate disprove inconsistent with in line with is/are better than is/are in good agreement is/are identical (to) is/are not dissimilar (to) is/are parallel (to) is/are similar (to) is/are unlike match prove refute reinforce support validate verify
144 Science Research Writing • Th e results are qualitatively similar to those of earlier simulation studies. • Th ese trends are in line with the previously discussed structure of the of the ferrihydrite aggregates. PROBLEMS WITH RESULTS Remember that research is not necessarily invalidated by inappropriate results, provided they are presented in a conventional, professional way. Th e vocabulary below will help you to achieve this. minimise the problem/focus on good results (a) preliminary attempt despite this, however, immaterial incomplete infi nitesimal insignifi cant less than ideal less than perfect (a) minor defi cit/limitation negligible nevertheless not always reliable not always accurate not ideal not identical not completely clear not perfect not precise not signifi cant of no consequence of no/little signifi cance only reasonable results were obtained suggest reasons for the problem may/could/might have been or was/were: beyond the scope of this study caused by diffi cult to (simulate) due to hard to (control) inevitable it should be noted that... not attempted not examined not explored in this study not investigated not the focus of this paper not within the scope of this study possible source(s) of error unavoidable unexpected unfortunately unpredictable unworkable unavailable
Results — Vocabulary 145 * Remember that the phrase future work should is used to suggest a direction for the research community, whereas future work will tells readers that this is your next project. • Th e correlation between the two methods was somewhat less in the case of a central concentrated point load. • It should, however, be noted that in FE methods, the degree of mesh refi nement may aff ect the results. • Nevertheless, this eff ect is only local. • Full experimental data was only obtained at one location. • Reasonable results were obtained in the fi rst case, and good results in the second. • It is diffi cult to simulate the behaviour of the joints realistically. • Although this was not obtained experimentally, it can be assumed to exist. • Future work should therefore include numerical diff usion eff ects in the calculation of permeability. • Th is type of control saturation is fairly common and therefore of no signifi cance. Here is an interesting table. It is supposed to be funny, but as you can see, it refl ects a set of shared assumptions and a kind of 'code' used in the research community. room for improvement slightly (disappointing) (a) slight mismatch/limitation somewhat (problematic) (a) technicality unimportant off er a solution further work is planned future work should... * future work will...* in future, care should be taken in future, it is advised that... WHEN YOU WRITE THIS... DO YOU MEAN THIS? It has long been known that... I can't remember the reference Th is is of great theoretical and practical importance Th is is interesting to me
146 Science Research Writing It has not been possible to provide defi nite answers to these questions Th e experiments didn't work out High purity/very high purity/ extremely high purity Composition unknown Th ree of the samples were chosen for detailed study Th e results of the others didn't make sense, so we ignored them Typical results are shown Only the best results are shown Although some detail has been lost in reproduction, it appears to be clear from the original micro- graph that... It is impossible to tell much from the original micrograph Agreement with the predicted curve was: perfect excellent reasonably good satisfactory fair not perfect as good as can be expected Agreement with the predicted curve was: fair poor very poor awful really awful imaginary non-existent Th ese results will be reported at a later date I might get round to this sometime if I don't change careers It is suggested that... It is believed that... It seems that... I think that...
Results — Vocabulary 147 POSSIBLE IMPLICATIONS OF RESULTS At some stage (usually late) in the Results, it is appropriate to provide a general explanation or interpretation of what your results might mean. Th is is oft en the pivotal point in a paper, and signals the move towards the Discussion/Conclusion. Choose your verb tense carefully. You can use the Present Simple or the Past Simple. Because the Present Simple is the tense used to express permanent truths and facts, using the Present Simple will give your sentence the status of a fact. Using the Present Simple therefore 'unlocks' your interpretation from your research and enhances its truth-value (We found that x occurs, which indicate/suggests that y causes z), If you are less confi dent, use the Past Simple (We found that x occurred, which indicated/ suggested that y caused z). Notice how many words from the list of vocabulary used to describe causal relationships are found here (see Section 3.2.4). It is clear that much additional work is required before a complete understanding can be reached I don't understand it Unfortunately, a quantitative theory to account for these eff ects has not yet been formulated Neither does anyone else Correct within an order of Wrong It is hoped that this work will stimulate further research Th is paper isn't very good, but neither is anyone else's It is obvious ...but impossible to prove
148 Science Research Writing *could can be replaced by may or might or sometimes can; there is a grammar section on these modal verbs in the next unit. • Th is suggests that silicon is intrinsically involved in the precipitation mechanism. • Th ese curves indicate that the eff ective breadth is a minimum at the point of application of the load. • Empirically, it seems that alignment is most sensitive to rotation in depth. • Only the autumn crocus produced a positive response, suggesting that other species would fl ower earlier under climate warming. apparently could* be due to could* be explained by could* account for could* be attributed to could* be interpreted as could* be seen as evidently imply/implies that indicate/indicating that in some circumstances is owing to is/are associated with is/are likely is/are linked to is/are related to it appears that it could* be concluded that... it could* be inferred that it could* be speculated that it could* be assumed that it is conceivable that it is evident that it is logical that it is thought/believed that it seems that it seems plausible (etc.) that likely may/might means that perhaps possibly/possibility potentially presumably probably provide compelling evidence seem to suggest(ing) that support the idea that tend to tendency unlikely there is evidence for we could* infer that we have confi dence that would seem to suggest/indicate
Results — Writing a Results Section 149 • It could be inferred therefore that these may have reacted with ozone to form organic acids, such as formic acid. • Th is indicates that no signifi cant crystalline transformations occurred during sintering. • It is therefore speculated that at pH 7.5 a major part of the reaction was via hydroxyl radical attack. • It is apparent that this type of controller may be more sensitive to plant/model mismatch than was assumed in simulation studies. • Th e results seem to indicate that this causes the behaviour to become extremely volatile. • It is evident that the ψ at midspan increases with the increasing r. In your native language you intuitively choose words and phrases which refl ect exactly the appropriate strength of your claim and the level of risk you want to take in stating it. You need to be able to do this in English, both in this section and in the Discussion/Conclusion. Th e sentence We found that sunbathing causes cancer expresses a very strong claim, but you can communicate a weaker form of it in many diff erent ways. Here are some examples: We found that sunbathing is related to the onset of cancer. We found that sunbathing was related to the onset of cancer. We found that sunbathing may have been related to the onset of cancer. We found evidence to suggest that sunbathing may have been related to the onset of cancer. We found evidence to suggest that in some cases/in many cases, sunbathing may have been related to the onset of cancer. We found evidence to suggest that in some cases, excessive sunbathing may have been related to the onset of certain types of cancer. It is thought that excessive sunbathing may sometimes be considered as contributing to the onset of certain types of cancer. 3.5 Writing a Results Section In the next task, you will bring together and use all the information in this unit. You will write a Results section according to the model, using the grammar and vocabulary you have learned, so make sure that you have the model (Section 3.3.3) and the vocabulary (Section 3.4) in front of you.
150 Science Research Writing Th roughout this unit you have seen that conventional science writing is easier to learn, easier to write and easier for others to read than direct translations from your own language or more creative writing strategies. You have learned the conventional model of a Results section and collected the vocabulary conventionally used. Your sentence patterns should also be conventional; use the sentences you have read in your target articles and in the Results printed here as models for the sentence patterns in your writing, and adapt them for the task. Follow the model exactly this time. Aft er you have practised it once or twice you can vary it to suit your needs. However, you should always use it to check Results sections you have written so that you can be sure that the information is in an appropriate order and that you have done what your readers expect you to do in this section. Although a model answer is provided in the Key, you should try to have your own answer checked by a native speaker of English if possible, to make sure that you are using the vocabulary correctly. 3.5.1 Write a Results section Imagine that you have just completed a research project which has been investigating a possible link between UFO (Unidentifi ed Flying Object) sightings and earthquake prediction. Th e task in this exercise is to evaluate your data and fi ndings as if you were writing the Results section of a research paper. In your Introduction you stated that various theories have been suggested for the increase in the number of UFO sightings immediately prior to an earthquake. You claim that it is possible that the increase in the number of sightings during the period immediately prior to an earthquake can be used to predict when an earthquake is likely to occur. In your Methodology, you described how you collected data and assessed it on the basis of certain criteria. Now you will present and evaluate this data in the Results. Using Table 1 below, write the Results section of this paper. Th e title of your research paper is Th e earthquake lights theory: an analysis of earthquake-related UFO sightings. You should write approximately 300– 400 words. If you get stuck and don't know what to write next, use the model and the vocabulary to help you move forward. Don't look at the model answer until you have fi nished writing. As usual, you can make up facts and references for this exercise.
Results — Writing a Results Section 151 3.5.2 Key Here is a sample answer. When you read it, think about which part of the model is represented in each sentence. Results Based on the assumption that the timing of UFO sightings may be of signifi cance,2 the aim of this study was to investigate a possible link between the number of UFO sightings close to the epicentre during the period immediately prior to an earthquake, and the earthquakes that follow. Th e process of evaluating UFO sightings is complex and time-consuming. Checks with police, air traffi c control operators Table 1: UFO sightings within 300 km of epicentre. Country UFO sightings for 7 days prior to earthquake Earthquake Average weekly UFO sightings Description of UFO Russia 55 3.2 11 Green ball of light India 15 4.4 18 Fast- moving disc Australia 120 6.0 30 White fl ashes of USA 275 5.6 75 Clusters of high-speed Canada 42 2.6 6 Blue-green egg-shaped object
152 Science Research Writing and meteorologists were performed. Where possible, witnesses were interviewed and videos of the area was examined in order to eliminate as many conventional explanations as possible, such as satellites, meteors, space debris and even bird fl ocks.2,4,11 All the cases were documented using the procedure followed by Vader4 and results are displayed in Table 1. Th e Richter scale11 was used to measure magnitude. It is evident from the results that overall, there was a marked increase in sightings during the seven days prior to the earthquake. Th ese results are in line with those of Kenobi et al. (2004), who noted a mean fourfold increase worldwide.9 In Russia and the USA, for example, the number of sightings increased approximately fourfold during the week preceding the earthquake, and in Canada the increase was even more dramatic. Although the Table 1: UFO sightings within 300 km of epicentre. Country UFO sightings for 7 days prior to the earthquake Earthquake Average weekly UFO sightings Description of UFO Russia 44 3.2 11 Green ball of India 15 4.4 18 Fast-moving disc Australia 90 6.0 30 White fl ashes of light USA 275 5.6 75 Clusters of high-speed Canada 48 3.6 6 Blue-green egg-shaped object
Results — Writing a Results Section 153 number of sightings is low in Canada, this may have been due to a low national interest in UFOs; in addition, the earthquake took place in a sparsely-populated area of the country. It is signifi cant that almost all the participants in each country gave exactly the same description of 'their' UFO, and that these descriptions were noticeably diff erent from those obtained in other countries. It appears from this evidence that the period immediately prior to earthquake activity was associated with an increase in the number of UFO sightings. However, this work represents only a preliminary attempt to establish such a link. Th e actual relationship between the two may be more complex; for example, it is possible that because a Star Wars fi lm was released in the USA during the period under study, the number of sightings was higher that week without any real change in UFO activity. Th ese results nevertheless suggest that monitoring UFO activity may provide useful input for earthquake prediction strategies.
154 Unit 4 ✏ Writing the Discussion/Conclusion 4.1 Structure Th e title of this subsection varies from journal to journal. As noted in Unit 3, some journals end with a subsection titled Discussion, some end with a subsection titled Results and Discussion and others end with a subsection titled Conclusions. In the fi rst two cases the elements which need to be included in the Discussion are similar. Where there is a Conclusions section, it is short, usually comprising one or two paragraphs focusing on specifi c aspects of the Discussion. Th e graphic representation at the beginning of each unit is symmetrical because many of the elements of the Introduction occur again in the Discussion/Conclusion in (approximately) reverse order. Th e Introduction moves from a general, broad focus to the narrower 'report' section of the paper, and the Discussion/Conclusion moves away from that narrow section to a wider, more general focus. Th e Discussion looks back at the points made in the Introduction on the basis of the information in the central report section. Let us look again at the four components of the Introduction: 1 ESTABLISH THE IMPORTANCE OF YOUR FIELD PROVIDE BACKGROUND FACTS/INFORMATION (possibly from research) DEFINE THE TERMINOLOGY IN THE TITLE/KEY WORDS PRESENT THE PROBLEM AREA/CURRENT RESEARCH FOCUS
Discussion/Conclusion — Structure 155 When you started the Introduction, you helped your readers move into the research article by establishing that the topic was a signifi cant topic, providing background information and so on. Following the same pattern in reverse, you end the Discussion/Conclusion by helping your readers move out of the article. 2 PREVIOUS AND/OR CURRENT RESEARCH AND CONTRIBUTIONS 3 LOCATE A GAP IN THE RESEARCH DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM YOU WILL ADDRESS PRESENT A PREDICTION TO BE TESTED 4 DESCRIBE THE PRESENT PAPER RESULTS (what you found/saw) ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION DISCUSSION/ CONCLUSION MATERIALS/ METHODS (what you did/used) central report section Fig. 1. Th e shape of a research article or thesis.
156 Science Research Writing Cognitive-behavioural stress management (CBSM) skills and quality of life in stress-related disorders. Discussion