98 Science Research Writing KEY 1. before the beginning beforehand earlier formerly in advance originally previously prior to 2. at the beginning/fi rst step at fi rst at the beginning at the start fi rstly in the beginning initially to begin with to start with 3. steps/order aft er aft erwards earlier next once previously prior to secondly etc subsequently then 4. aft er a short while before long shortly aft er soon 5. at a late/later stage; aft er a while/longer period in time later later on subsequently towards the end
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 99 6. one point/period occurring almost or exactly at the same time as another as as soon as at that point at the same time immediately in the meantime just then meanwhile simultaneously straight away upon + -ing when while 7. at the end/last step at the end fi nally lastly 8. aft er the end aft erwards in the end later later on 3.2.2 Frequency It is also important to communicate clearly how oft en a particular event or result occurred. If a particular result occurred on every occasion a test was carried out, then it is a very reliable result; if it sometimes occurred when the test was carried out, that is a less reliable result. In the Methodology, if you write x was done without a frequency modifi er, your reader may not be able to reproduce your method exactly. In the Results, if you write x occurred without a frequency modifi er, your readers may not be able to compare their results with yours. Most importantly, readers may not be able to evaluate your results appropriately if they do not know how oft en a particular result occurred. Frequency language has been arranged in the list below in order of frequency from 100% frequency (on every occasion) down to zero
100 Science Research Writing frequency (never). However, note that frequency language is oft en used in a subjective way: if something is said to occur frequently, this could be in relation to how oft en it was expected to occur. In other words, if previous research indicated that a particular result was unlikely to occur at all but in your study you fi nd it on as many as 18% of occasions, you may consider that to be a frequent occurrence. On the other hand, if previous research indicated that something is very likely to occur but in your study you fi nd it on only 57% of occasions, you may consider that to be relatively rare. Although frequency terms have an objective meaning, they can be used in a subjective way. Th ere is an identifi able mid-point in the list below: the phrase as oft en as not is used to express the fact that something occurred as oft en as it did not occur, i.e. with neutral frequency. Items appearing above that 50% mid-point express positive frequency and items appearing below it express negative frequency. However, apart from the fi rst group and the last group, the items on the list cannot be quantifi ed in terms of precise percentage frequency. Th e list has been broken down into 11 groups, each of which contains items with more or less the same meaning. 1. each/every time without exception on each/every occasion always invariably 2. habitually as a rule generally normally usually 3.* regularly repeatedly
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 101 *Th e meanings of the items in Categories 3 and 4 are more fl exible than those in the other categories. 4.* frequently oft en commonly 5. more oft en than not 6. as oft en as not (neutral frequency) 7. sometimes on some occasions at times 8. occasionally now and then from time to time 9. rarely seldom infrequently 10. hardly ever barely ever almost never scarcely ever 11. on no occasion not once at no time never
102 Science Research Writing Look at how the words/phrases in each group aff ect the meaning of a sentence. Imagine you want to fi nd your supervisor on a Monday morning, and you want to know whether you should look for him in the library.
1. If he always goes to the library on Monday mornings you will fi nd him there today.
2. If he generally goes to the library on Monday mornings you expect to fi nd him there today and you will be surprised if he is not there.
3. If he regularly goes to the library on Monday mornings you will probably fi nd him there today.
4. If he oft en goes to the library on Monday mornings there is a good chance that you may fi nd him there today.
5. If he goes to the library more oft en than not on Mondays, you should start by looking for him there, but he may not be there today.
6. If he goes to the library as oft en as not on Monday mornings you may fi nd him there today — or you may not. It's impossible to predict because the chances are equal; he goes there as oft en as he doesn't go there.
7. If he sometimes goes to the library on Monday mornings perhaps he will be there today (but you won't be surprised if he isn't there).
8. If he occasionally goes to the library on Monday mornings he might be there today but it's unlikely.
9. If he rarely goes to the library on Monday mornings he probably won't be there today (so don't bother to look for him there). 10. If he hardly ever goes to the library on Monday mornings he is not expected to be there today, and you would be surprised to fi nd him there. 11. If he never goes to the Library on Monday mornings he won't be there today. 3.2.3 Quantity Words have surprising power, and can encourage people to form strong impressions. Imagine, for example, that you are at a party and someone says to you: 'Come and meet my neighbour, he spent 10 years in prison for murder'. When you meet the neighbour his face may seem quite frightening. However, if you are told beforehand: 'Come and meet my neighbour, he gives a lot of money to poor people', he will probably look like a kind and caring person.
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 103 Th e language you use to describe your results has as much power as the tables and graphs themselves, perhaps even more. Look at the two curves in the fi gure below: When you comment on this fi gure, if you write As can be seen in the fi gure, the two curves are very similar, the reader will focus on the similarity between the curves, and they will therefore seem similar. However, if you write As can be seen in the fi gure, the two curves are noticeably diff erent, the reader will focus on the diff erence between them, and they will therefore seem diff erent. Th e comments you make on your results tell your reader what you think about those results and infl uences the way readers perceive them. Results do not speak for themselves! You can describe your results in numbers or percentages but those numbers or percentages are already visible to your reader in the graph or table; your reader needs to know what the numbers or quantities mean in order to understand them. For example, if the table or graph of your results shows that the eff ect you were looking for occurred in 23% of cases, you can communicate this as a strong result (in as many as 23% of cases) or a weak result (in only 23% of cases), but if you just write: As can be seen in Fig. 1, the eff ect occurred in 23% of cases, you have not added anything to what the reader can see for themselves. Losing this opportunity to communicate what your results mean can cause problems. If you do not describe or comment on your results in words, the reader may perceive them diff erently from you. In other words, if you write As can be seen in Fig. 1, the eff ect occurred in 23% of cases, although you may have thought that was a high percentage, the reader may decide that 23% of cases is low, or vice versa. Th is will have a damaging eff ect on the rest of your paper, in particular on your conclusions. You want your readers to accept your conclusions, and those conclusions should follow logically and naturally from your results. If you do not comment on your results so that the reader can share your understanding of them, s/he may
104 Science Research Writing see them diff erently. As a result, the conclusion you eventually derive from those results will not seem either natural or logical; in fact it can even seem surprising or rather strange to the reader. One way to communicate your interpretation of the results is to use the language in the Frequency list in Section 3.2.2. For example, instead of writing As can be seen in Fig. 1, the eff ect was seen on 23% of occasions, you could write: Th e eff ect was seen frequently (if you believe that 23% of occasions is evidence of a high level of frequency), or Th e eff ect was seen occasionally (if you believe that 23% of occasions is evidence of a low level of frequency). Another way to communicate your comments on the numbers, levels and quantities in the fi gure you are describing is to use quantity language. Quantity language can be used to replace numbers (many) or it can be used to comment on numbers (as many as 45). Th e words and phrases that communicate quantity can be divided into fi ve groups. 1) Th e fi rst group contains words or phrases which make the size/quantity look big: A considerable amount of residue remained in the pipe. 2) Th e second group contains words or phrases which make the size/ quantity look small: Barely 23% of the residue remained in the pipe. 3) Th e third group is used to emphasise how big/small/high/low the size/ quantity is: Th e amount that remained was even higher/even lower than predicted. 4) Th e fourth group is used to communicate that the size/quantity is similar/close to another: Almost all/Almost half of the residue remained in the pipe. 5) Th e fi ft h group is useful when you need to say something about the quantity but you do not want to commit yourself to an interpretation of how big or small it was: Some of the residue remained in the pipe.
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 105 Here is a list of words/phrases which can be used in this way: a great deal (of) a few a little a number (of) appreciable appreciably (higher/lower) approximately as many as (e.g. 45) as few as (e.g. 45) at least barely by far close (to) considerable considerably (higher/lower) easily (over/under) even (higher/lower) exceptionally (high/low) extremely (high/low) fairly (high/low) far (above/below) fewer (than) greater (than) hardly infi nitesimal in some cases just just (over/under) less little marginal marginally (higher/lower) marked markedly moderate more (than) much nearly negligible noticeable noticeably numerous only over (half/25%) particularly plenty practically quite reasonably relatively signifi cant signifi cantly slight small so (high/low) somewhat substantial substantially to some extent under upwards of virtually well (under/over)
106 Science Research Writing Now put them into the appropriate groups as described above. You can do this by imagining that the word/phrase is being used to describe the data in a fi gure, for example: As can be seen in Fig. 1, a substantial amount of residue remained in the pipe. Some of the words/phrases can be used in more than one category; for example, the word 'much': As can be seen in Fig. 1, much of the residue remained in the pipe (Group 1) and As can be seen in Fig. 1, the amount of residue remaining in the pipe was much lower than expected (Group 3). One example in each group is given in the box as a guide. 1. words or phrases which increase the size/quantity 2. words or phrases which reduce the size/quantity 3. words or phrases which emphasise how big/small/high/low the size/ quantity is very 4. words or phrases which communicate that the size/quantity is similar/ close to another almost 5. words or phrases which communicate a reluctance to commit oneself to an interpretation of the size/quantity
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 107 KEY 1. words or phrases which increase the size/quantity:
a great deal (of) a number (of) as many as (45) appreciable at least considerable greater (than) marked more (than) numerous over (half/25%) plenty much substantial signifi cant upwards of 2. words or phrases which reduce the size/quantity:
a few a little as few as 45 barely fewer (than) hardly infi nitesimal little less marginal negligible only slight small under 3. words or phrases which emphasise how big/small/high/low the size/quantity is:
appreciably by far considerably easily (over/under) even (higher/lower) exceptionally (high/low) extremely (high/low) far (above/below) particularly so (high/low) substantially well (under/over) 4. words or phrases which communicate that the size/quantity is similar/close to another:
approximately close (to) little (i.e. close to none) nearly practically
108 Science Research Writing 3.2.4 Causality When you describe your results, you may want to indicate the relationships or connections between the events that you observed. Sometimes you may be able to state clearly that one event caused another, on other occasions you may want to say that one event caused another but you do not have proof of the causal connection between them. Th is section is designed to provide you with a variety of language options to represent your understanding of the relationships between the events you observed. In some of the verbs or phrases, the position of the cause and the eff ect are fi xed. For example, in x produced y, the subject, x, is the cause and the object, y, is the eff ect; in x originated in y, x is the eff ect and y is the cause. In others, however, such as x is linked to y, it depends on what the writer wishes to say; x could be either the cause or the eff ect, or the writer may simply want to indicate that x and y are connected in some way. Some verbs/phrases in the list below communicate a clear/strong causal connection (cause, produce, be due to). Some refer to a partial cause (be a factor in, contribute to), some refer to the initial or fi rst cause in a causal chain (originate in, initiate). Th ere are also verbs and phrases in the list which communicate a weak causal connection (be related to, link). Th ese are useful when you want to indicate that there is a connection between particular events or phenomena but perhaps are not certain which was the
few (i.e. close to none) just (over/under) slightly virtually 5. words or phrases which communicate a reluctance to commit oneself to an interpretation of the size/quantity:
fairly in some cases moderate quite rather reasonably relatively somewhat to some extent
Results — Grammar and Writing Skills 109 cause and which was the eff ect. You may not even be certain yourself that the connection between them is defi nitely a causal connection. Th ese verbs and phrases are indicated by an asterisk (*) in the table. Not all these verbs can be used in the passive, but where the passive can be used, it is given in the list. Note that: • to be a cause of or a result of something implies that other factors were also involved, whereas to be the cause of or the result of something implies that it is the only cause or result. • x results from y means x is a consequence of y; whereas result in y means y is a consequence of x (be) a/the cause of (be) a/the consequence of (be) a factor in (be) a/the result of (be) due to accompany/(be) accompanied* account for/(be) accounted for aff ect/(be) aff ected arise from ascribe to/(be) ascribed to associate/(be) associated* attribute to/(be) attributed to bring about/(be) brought about cause/(be) caused come from connect to/(be) connected to* contribute to create/(be) created derive/(be) derived eff ect/(be) eff ected elicit/(be) elicited give rise to generate/(be) generated infl uence/(be) infl uenced initiate/(be) initiated link/(be) linked* originate in produce/(be) produced relate/(be) related* result from result in stem from trigger/(be) triggered yield Causal statements such as x caused y are risky because they may be disproved at a later stage. As a result, science writing has developed many ways of reducing the responsibility of the writer when making such statements. One of the ways which you have seen in the box above is to weaken the causal verb, so that instead of saying x caused y you may decide
110 Science Research Writing to say x was linked to y. Here are some other ways of reducing your risk and responsibility by 'soft ening' a causal statement: You can begin with one of the following: It appears that... It can/may* (therefore) be inferred/assumed that... It is (very/highly/extremely) probable/likely that... It is (widely/generally) accepted that... It is/may be reasonable to suppose/assume that ... It is/may be thought/recognised/believed/felt that... It is/may/can be assumed that... It seems (very/highly) probable/likely that... It seems (likely) that... It would seem/appear that ... Th e evidence points to the likelihood/probability that... Th e evidence suggests that... Th ere is a clear/good/defi nite/strong possibility that... Th ere is evidence to indicate that... Th is implies/seems to imply/may imply that... Apparently, (therefore), Th ere seems to be/is a tendency to It is thought/said/recognised that x caused y. * Th ere will be more about this type of verb, called modal verbs, in the next unit. Another option is to add a frequency qualifi er: x oft en caused y x commonly caused y x rarely caused y or a quantity qualifi er: x caused y in many cases x caused y in some cases/to some extent x caused y in virtually all cases
Results — Writing Task 111 or a modal verb: x may have caused y x might have caused y x could have caused y and you can use more than one in a sentence, depending on how 'weak' you want your claim to be — but be careful; if you add too many, the sentence may not mean very much at all: Th e evidence points to the possibility that in many cases, x can contribute to certain types of y. 3.3 Writing Task: Build a Model 3.3.1 Building a model You are now ready to begin to build a model of the Results section by writing a short description of what the writer is doing in each sentence in the space provided below. Th e Key is on the next page. Once you have tried to produce your own model you can use the Key to help you write this section of a research article when you eventually do it on your own. GUIDELINES You should spend 30–45 minutes on this task. If you can't think of a good description of the fi rst sentence, choose an easier one, for example Sentence 5, and start with that. Your model is only useful if it can be transferred to other Results sections, so don't include content words such as traffi c or you won't be able to use your model to generate Results sections in your own fi eld. Remember that one way to fi nd out what the writer is doing in a sentence, rather than what s/he is saying, is to imagine that your computer has accidentally deleted it. What changes for you, as a reader, when it disappears? If you press another key on the computer and the sentence comes back, how does that aff ect the way you respond to the information? As mentioned in previous sections, another way to fi gure out what the writer is doing in a sentence — rather than what s/he is saying — is to look
112 Science Research Writing at the grammar and vocabulary clues. What is the tense of the main verb? What is that tense normally used for? Is it the same tense as in the previous sentence? If not, why has the writer changed the tense? What words has the writer chosen to use? Don't expect to produce a perfect model. You will modify your model when you look at the Key, and perhaps again when you compare it to the way Results sections work in your target articles. A modelling approach to traffi c management and CO exposure during peak hours Results