1 in the model, write 1 next to it, etc. Eff ects of H2O on structure of acid-catalysed SiO2 sol-gel fi lms Th in silica fi lms were deposited on silicon wafers by the sol-gel technique, using spin coating. Th e sols were prepared by HCl catalysis of tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) diluted in ethanol, using
214 Science Research Writing diff erent molar ratios, R, of H2O:TEOS. Th e fi lms were then baked at various temperatures, and characterised using ellipsometry, profi lometry, optical scattering and infrared spectroscopy. It was found that the thickness, shrinkage, porosity and pore sizes all decrease with increasing R. it was also found that high water levels yield fi lms of higher homogeneity and fi ner texture, and less tensile stress. Limitations of charge-transfer models for mixed-conducting oxygen electrodes A framework is presented for defi ning charge-transfer and non- charge-transfer processes in solid state electrochemical systems. We examine why charge-transfer models have diffi culty modelling non-charge-transfer eff ects, and walk through several examples including the ALS model for oxygen reduction on a porous mixed-conducting oxygen electrode. Th ese examples illustrate that electrode 'overpotential' is oft en better described in terms of macroscopic thermodynamic gradients of chemical species. In the case of a porous mixed conducting oxygen electrode, oxygen reduction is limited by chemical reaction and diff usion, and may occur up to 20 microns from the electrochemical (charge-transfer) interface. OPTIMIZATION AND SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS FOR MULTIRESPONSE PARAMETER ESTIMATION IN SYSTEMS OF ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS Methodology for the simultaneous solution of ordinary diff erential equations (ODEs) and associated parametric sensitivity equations using the Decoupled Direct Method (DDM) is presented with respect to its applicability to multiresponse parameter estimation for systems described by nonlinear ordinary diff erential equations.
Abstract — Writing Task 215 Th e DDM is extended to provide second order sensitivity coeffi cients and incorporated in multiresponse parameter estimation algorithms utilizing a modifi ed Newton scheme as well as a hybrid Newton/Gauss–Newton optimization algorithm. Signifi cant improvements in performance are observed with use of both the second order sensitivities and hybrid optimization method. In this work, our extension of the DDM to evaluate second order sensitivities and development of new hybrid estimation techniques provide ways to minimize the well-known drawbacks normally associated with second-order optimization methods and expand the possibility of realizing their benefi ts, particularly for multiresponse parameter estimation in systems of ODEs. Semi-continuous nanofi ltration-coupled Heck reactions as a new approach to improve productivity of homogeneous catalysts Substantial increase in homogeneous catalyst productivity for a well known Heck coupling was achieved by nanofi ltration-coupled catalysis. Th e use of nanofi ltration membranes enabled catalyst separation and allowed subsequent catalyst recycle and reuse. Th is new technique demonstrated potential for general applicability to homogeneously catalysed organic syntheses. Ras isoforms vary in their ability to activate Raf-1 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase Ha-, N-, and Ki-Ras are ubiquitously expressed in mammalian cells and can all interact with the same set of eff ector proteins. We show here, however, that in vivo there are marked quantitative diff erences in the ability of Ki- and Ha-Ras to activate Raf-1 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase. Th us, Ki-Ras both recruits Raf-1 to the plasma membrane more effi ciently than Ha-Ras and is a more potent activator of membrane-recruited Raf-1 than Ha-Ras. In contrast, Ha-Ras is a more potent activator of phosphoinositide
216 Science Research Writing 3-kinase than Ki-Ras. Interestingly, the ability of Ha-Ras to recruit Raf-1 to the plasma membrane is signifi cantly increased when the Ha-Ras hypervariable region is shortened so that the spacing of the Ha-Ras GTPase domains from the inner surface of the plasma membrane mimics that of Ki-Ras. Importantly, these data show for the fi rst time that the activation of diff erent Ras isoforms can have distinct biochemical consequences for the cell. Th e mutation of specifi c Ras isoforms in diff erent human tumors can, therefore, also be rationalized. Now do the same in your target articles. We hope you obtain good confi rmation of the model and have found the answers to the questions at the beginning of this section: • How do I start this section? What type of sentence should I begin with? • What type of information should be in this section, and in what order? • How do I end this section? 5.4 Vocabulary You already have most of the information you need to write this section of your paper because you can fi nd the words/phrases you need in the other units of this book. However, because the Abstract needs to be understood by a wider range of people than the article itself, the Abstract tends to use simpler, more conventional language where possible. We will therefore look at the most common vocabulary in each part of the model. Th e vocabulary lists in this section are taken from over 600 Abstracts in diff erent fi elds, all of which were written by native speakers and published in science journals. Only words/phrases which appear frequently in this set of research articles have been included; this means that the vocabulary lists contain words and phrases which are considered normal and acceptable by both writers and editors. In the next section we will look at typical vocabulary for all the areas of the model.
Abstract — Vocabulary 217 5.4.1 Vocabulary task Look through the Abstracts in this unit and in each of your target articles. Underline or highlight all the words and phrases that you think could be used in each part of the model. You should recognise them from previous sections without too much trouble. A full list of useful language can be found on the following pages and of course in the relevant sections in previous units. Th is list includes all the words and phrases you have highlighted from the Abstracts in this unit, along with others which you may have seen in your target articles. 5.4.2 Vocabulary for the Abstract 1. BACKGROUND You can fi nd more in Unit 1, Section 1.4.2, as well as examples of how these a number of studies exist(s) frequently generally is a common technique is/are assumed to is/are based on is/are determined by is/are infl uenced by is/are related to it has recently been shown that it is known that it is widely accepted that occur(s) oft en popular produce(s) recent research recent studies recently recently-developed AIM You can fi nd more in Unit 1, Section 1.4.2 and Unit 2, Section 2.4.2, as well as examples of how these are used. in order to our approach the aim of this study to compare to examine to investigate to study with the aim of
218 Science Research Writing PROBLEM You can fi nd more in Unit 1, Section 1.4.2, as well as examples of how these (an) alternative approach a need for although complicated desirable diffi culty disadvantage drawback essential expensive however impractical inaccurate inconvenient it should be possible to limited not able to problem require risk time-consuming unsuccessful WHAT THE PAPER DOES In this study/paper/investigation we or We address analyse argue consider describe discuss emphasise examine extend introduce present propose review show Th is study/paper/investigation considers describes examines extends includes presents reports reviews
Abstract — Vocabulary 219 Note: It is also possible to use many of these verbs with it or, i.e. In this paper it is shown/argued that... or in the passive, i.e. A framework is presented... 2. METHODOLOGY/MATERIALS You can fi nd more in Unit 2, Section 2.4.2, as well as examples of how these was/were assembled was/were calculated was/were constructed was/were evaluated was/were formulated was/were measured was/were modelled was/were performed was/were recorded was/were studied was/were treated was/were used ACHIEVEMENT/CONTRIBUTION You can fi nd more in Unit 4, Section 4.4.2, as well as examples of how these 3. RESULTS You can fi nd more in Unit 3, Section 3.4.2, as well as examples of how these caused decreased had no eff ect increased it was noted/observed that... occurred produced resulted in was identifi ed was/were achieved was/were found was/were identical was/were observed was/were obtained was/were present was/were unaff ected (by) yielded
220 Science Research Writing accurate better consistent eff ective enhanced exact improved new novel simple suitable superior achieve allow demonstrate ensure guarantee obtain validate compare well with for the fi rst time in good agreement IMPLICATIONS You can fi nd more in Unit 3, Section 3.4.2, as well as examples of how these are used, but remember not to use the weaker forms such as seem to suggest or tend to be related to in the Abstract. Th e evidence/Th ese results... indicate(s) that mean(s) that suggest(s) that it is thought that we conclude that we suggest that can may 4. APPLICATIONS You can fi nd more in Unit 4, Section 4.4.2, as well as examples of how these applicability can be applied can be used make it possible to potential use relevant for/in
Abstract — Writing an Abstract 221 5. LIMITATIONS and FUTURE WORK Limitations and future work are rarely mentioned in an Abstract and then only briefl y. You can fi nd more in Unit 2, Section 2.4.2, Unit 3, Section 3.4.2, and Unit 4, Section 4.4.2, as well as examples of how these are used a preliminary attempt not signifi cant slightly future directions future work 5.5 Writing an Abstract In the next task, you will bring together and use all the information in this unit. You will write an Abstract according to the model using the grammar and vocabulary you have learned, so make sure that you have both the model (Section 5.3.3) and the vocabulary (Section 5.4) in front of you. In this unit you have seen the two models of Abstracts and the vocabulary conventionally used has been collected. Remember that when you write, your sentence patterns should also be conventional, so use the sentence patterns of the Abstracts in this unit and in your target articles as models for the sentence patterns in your writing. Choose one of the models, follow it exactly this time, and in future, use it to check your Abstract so that you can be sure that you have done what your readers expect you to do in this section. Although model answers are provided in the Key, you should try to have your own answer checked by a native speaker of English if possible, to make sure that you are using the vocabulary correctly. 5.5.1 Write an Abstract Write an Abstract for the same research that was used in Unit 4, Section 4.5.1 to write the Discussion/Conclusion. It's reprinted here in full, including the model Discussion from the Key at the end of Unit 4. Imagine that you and your team have designed a machine which can remove chewing gum from fl oors and pavements by treating the gum chemically to transform it into powder and then using vacuum suction to remove it.
222 Science Research Writing In the Introduction, you began by saying that chewing-gum removal is a signifi cant environmental problem. You then provided factual information about the composition of chewing gum1,2 and the way in which it sticks to the fl oor.6 Aft er that, you looked at existing chewing-gum removal machines3,4 and noted that research has shown that they are unable to use suction to remove gum without damaging the fl oor surface.10 You referred to Gumbo et al., who claimed that it was possible to use chemicals to dissolve chewing gum.5 At the end of the Introduction you announced that you and your research team had designed a chewing gum removal machine (CGRM), which you call GumGone. GumGone sprays a non-toxic chemical onto the gum which transforms it to white powder. Th e machine can then remove the gum using suction without damaging the fl oor surface. In the Methodology you described the design and construction of the machine. You compared your CGRM, GumGone, to two existing machines, Gumsucker3 and Vacu-Gum.4 You then gave details of a set of trials which you conducted to test the effi ciency of the new CGRM and a further set of trials which showed the eff ect on the fl oor surface of gum removal. In the Results section, you showed results of these trials. You compared the performance of GumGone with Gumsucker and Vacu-Gum. Your results were very good, and they can be seen in the tables below. Table 1: Gum removal as a percentage of total sample
Gumsucker Vacu-gum GumGone Wooden fl oor 77 73 80 Stone fl oor 78 78 82 Carpeted fl oor 56 44 79 Table 2: Floor damage/staining
Gumsucker Vacu-gum GumGone Wooden fl oor none Stone fl oor some none Carpeted fl oor
Abstract — Writing an Abstract 223 Discussion Gum removal technology has traditionally faced the problem of achieving eff ective gum removal with minimal damage to fl oor surfaces. Existing CGRMs such as Gumsucker and Vacu-Gum use steam heat and steam injection respectively to remove gum and although both are fairly eff ective, the resulting staining and damage to fl oor surfaces, particularly carpeted fl oors, is oft en signifi cant.10 In this study the design and manufacture of a novel CGRM, GumGone, is presented. GumGone reduces the gum to a dry powder using a non-toxic chemical spray and then vacuums the residue, leaving virtually no stain. In trials, GumGone removed a high percentage of gum from all fl oor surfaces without causing fl oor damage. Th e fl oor surfaces tested included carpeted fl oors, suggesting that this technology is likely to have considerable commercial use. Percentage removal levels achieved using GumGone were consistently higher than for existing CGRMs on all types of fl oor surface. Th is was particularly noticeable in the case of carpeted fl oor, where 79% of gum was removed from a 400 m2 area, as opposed to a maximum of 56% with existing machines. Th is represents a dramatic increase in the percentage amount of gum removed. Our results confi rm the theory of Gumbo et al. that chemicals can be used to dissolve gum into dry powder and make it suitable for vacuuming.5 Th e greatest advantage over existing CGRMs, however, lies in the combination of the two technologies in a single machine. By reducing the delay period between gum treatment and gum removal, the GumGone system resulted in negligible staining of fl oor surfaces. Th is represents a new approach which removes the need for stain treatment or surface repair following gum removal. As noted earlier, only one wattage level (400 watts of vacuum suction power) was available in the GumGone prototype. Further work is needed to determine the power level at which gum removal is maximised and fl oor damage remains negligible.
224 Science Research Writing 5.5.2 Key Here are the sample answers. When you read them, think about which part of the model is represented in each sentence. MODEL 1 Th e fats and resins in chewing gum contribute to elasticity, bulk and texture but also increase staining. Th e aim of this study was to design a gum removal machine able to remove gum chemically with no stain residue. A machine, GumGone, was designed and constructed, which injected non-ionic detergent into gum deposits using a power spray and then immediately vacuumed the resulting powder. It was found that 1 µl of detergent achieved eff ective, stain-free removal over a 300 m2 area. Performance was superior to existing systems and suggests that the delay between treatment and removal is a signifi cant factor in staining. MODEL 2 Th is paper reports the design of a gum removal machine, GumGone, which combines non-ionic detergent treatment with immediate vacuum removal to minimise stain residue. Tests were conducted over a 300 m2 area and removal levels of between 79% to 80% were achieved. Residual staining levels were superior to existing systems. 5.6 Creating a Title In Section 5.5 it was stated that Many more people will read the title than the Abstract, and many more will read the Abstract than the whole paper. Th is is because the title, like the Abstract, tells readers whether or not the research article will be useful for them. A good title will attract readers and,
Abstract — Creating a Title 225 more importantly, will attract the appropriate readers. Th e reverse is also true: if the title is poor the research article may not reach the appropriate audience. I don't know how to start constructing a title. Start by looking at your research aim or the question you were trying to answer. Try and turn the question or problem into a title. For example, What is the diff erence between x and y? becomes A comparison of x and y and How does x aff ect y? becomes Th e eff ect of x on y What is a good title? Th e title should predict and describe the content of the paper as accurately as possible. If your paper is a case study, the title should refl ect this: Crack propagation in a pressurised pipe If it is a more general survey the title should indicate this: Crack initiation in pressurised pipes Th e title should include key words that make the paper retrievable easily on search engines. It does not necessarily have to be a sentence but it should nevertheless make sense. Notice that titles of research articles don't normally use title case; they are generally written in sentence case. Th ere are some grammar issues that are worth noting. When you use key words in constructing the title, be careful about creating complex compound nouns. Th e conciseness of a compound noun is very tempting for non-native writers and English has a high level of tolerance for such
226 Science Research Writing nouns, but make sure that the compound noun can be understood without ambiguity. Note that the noun on the right-hand side of a compound noun is the 'real' noun and any noun or nouns to the left of it have adjectival function in the sense that they modify the right-hand noun. Also note that the relationship between the nouns that make up a compound noun may include options you had not considered: • an oil can is a can which may contain oil ...or it may be empty, but its normal use is to contain oil • an oil can opener is an opener for cans which may contain oil • an oil can opener repair man is a man who is able to repair cans which may contain oil • an oil can opener repair man training programme is a programme to train men to repair openers for cans which may contain oil • an oil can opener repair man training programme funding problem is a problem with the funding for the training programme to train men to repair openers for cans which may contain oil Another aspect of grammar that oft en causes problems — and not only in the title — is the use of prepositions such as by, with, on, in, for. Prepositions are not simply a type of glue to hold words together; they have a profound eff ect on meaning, and in the title this eff ect is particularly signifi cant. Th e preposition with, for example, may mean either using or having. Evidence for something is evidence that tends to support or confi rm that it is present or that it exists. Evidence of something is an actual observable sign of its presence or existence. Filtering of code phase measures from dual-frequency gps receivers is diff erent from Filtering of code phase measures in dual-frequency gps receivers and Sensory components controlling bacterial nitrogen assimilation is much clearer than Sensory components in bacterial nitrogen assimilation
Abstract — Creating a Title 227 Since this is such a complex area and the risk of an error in the title is so signifi cant, it is advisable to avoid preposition-heavy structures and/or to get your title checked by a native-speaker colleague before submitting the paper for publication. Good titles are usually concise, so it is not common to begin with phrases such as A study of... or An investigation into... Th ey are also written in very formal English, so the use of a question mark is not common. What can I do to make sure that readers accurately estimate the value of my paper? If the results obtained in the study represent a signifi cant achievement, the title may simply state the results: Ras isoforms vary in their ability to activate raf-1 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase However, in most cases, the title is not the right place to indicate either the value of the paper or its limitations. State your title neutrally; words like reliable are not common, nor are modal verbs such as may/might/could. Be careful not to set up expectations which are not fulfi lled in the paper itself; for example, if your study does not refer to all substrates/systems/ reactions etc., the title should specify which substrates/systems/reactions it does refer to.
229 Sources and Credits Th e author wishes to acknowledge and thank the following, and to note that because extracts were selected to give examples of good writing, graphs and tables were not included: Adler, S.B. (2000) Limitations of charge-transfer models for mixed- conducting oxygen electrodes. Solid State Ionics Vol. 135, No. 1: 603. Burrows, P.E. et al. (1995). Organic vapor phase deposition: A new method for the growth of organic thin fi lms with large optical non-linearities. Journal of Crystal Growth Vol. 156, Issue 1–2: 91–98. Clark, T., Stephenson, T. and Pearce, P.A. (1997). Phosphorus removal by chemical precipitation in a biological aerated fi lter. Water Research Vol. 31, No. 10: 2557–2563. Fardad, M.A., Yeatman, E.M., Dawnay, E.J.C., Green, M. and Horowitz, F. (1995). Eff ects of H2O on structure of acid-catalysed SiO2 sol-gel fi lms. Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 183: 261–263. Favro, L.D. et al. (2000). Infrared imaging of defects heated by a sonic pulse. Review of Scientifi c Instruments Vol. 71, No. 6: 2418–2421. Graham, N., Chu, W. and Lau, C. (2003). Observations of 2,4,6- trichlorophenol degradation by ozone. Chemosphere Vol. 51, Issue 4: 237–243. Guay, M. and McLean, D.D. (1995). Optimization and sensitivity analysis for multiresponse parameter estimation in systems of ordinary diff erential equations. Computers and Chemical Engineering Vol. 19, No. 12: 1271. Ince, B.K., Ince, O., Sallis, P.J. and Anderton, G.K. (2000). Inert COD production in a membrane anaerobic reactor treating brewery wastewater. Water Research Vol: 34, Issue 16: 3943–3948.
230 Science Research Writing Kittler, J. et al. (1998). On combining classifi ers. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence Archive Vol. 20, Issue 3: 238. Müller, D.J. and Engel, A. (1997). Th e height of biomolecules measured with the atomic force microscope depends on electrostatic interactions. Biophysical Journal 73:1633–1644. Nair, D. et al. (2001). Semi-continuous nanofi ltration-coupled Heck reactions as a new approach to improve productivity of homogeneous catalysts. Tetrahedron Letters Vol. 42, Issue 46: 8219–8222. Pavlovic, M.N., Arnaout, S. and Hitchings, D. (1997). Finite element modelling of sewer linings. Computers & Structures Vol. 63, Issue 4: 837–848. Pendry, J.B. and MacKinnon, A. (1992). Calculation of photon dispersion relations. London Physical Review Letters Vol. 69, Issue 19: 2772. Smith, W.R. et al. (1998). Generalized thermodynamic perturbation theory for polyatomic fl uid mixtures. I. Formulation and results for chemical potentials. Journal of Chemical Physics Vol. 109, Issue 3: 1060–1061. Sparks, T.H., Jeff ree, E.P. and Jeff ree, C.E. (2000). An examination of the relationship between fl owering times and temperature at the national scale using long-term phenological records from the UK. International Journal of Biometeorology Vol. 44, No. 2: 82–87. Virmani, S., Sacchi, M.F., Plenio, M.B. and Markham, D. (2001). Optimal local discrimination of two multipartite pure states. Physics Letters A Vol. 288, Issue 2: 62–68. Yan, J. et al. (1998). Ras isoforms vary in their ability to activate Raf-1 and phosphoinositide 3-kinase. J. Biol. Chem. Vol. 273, Issue 37: 24052. In addition, I would like to express my gratitude to my colleagues at the English Language Support Programme at Imperial College London for all their suggestions, and to the many students at Imperial College London who have provided research articles and input for this book over the years. I also thank my dear children Ben, Daniel, Liora, Yoel and Alex, for their enthusiasm and support.
231 Useful Resources and Further Reading Day, R. and Gastel, B. (2006). How to Write and Publish a Scientifi c Paper (6th Edition). Greenwood Press, California. Hewings, M. (2005). Advanced Grammar in Use. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Holtom, D. and Fisher, E. (1999). Enjoy Writing Your Science Th esis or Dissertation! Imperial College Press, London. Huth, E.J. (1994). Scientifi c Style and Format: Th e CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Jordan, R. (1990). Academic Writing Course. Collins ELT, London. Krause Neufeld, J. (1987). A Handbook for Technical Communication. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff s, New Jersey. Masters, P. (2004). English Grammar and Technical Writing. US State Department. Michaelson, H. (1990). How to Write & Publish Engineering Papers and Reports. Oryx Press, Arizona. Oshima, A. and Hogue, A. (1999). Writing Academic English, Th ird Edition. Longman, New York. Skelton, J.R. and Edwards, S.J.L. (2000). Th e function of the discussion section in academic medical writing — Education and Debate. British Medical Journal 320: 1269–1270 Swales, J.M. and Feak, C.B. (1994). Academic Writing for Graduate Students. University of Michigan Press, Michigan. Swales, J.M. (1990). Genre Analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Weissberg, R. and Buker, S. (1990). Writing Up Research. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff s, New Jersey.
233 Appendix A: Abbreviations Used in Science Writing ABBREVIATION FULL WORD/PHRASE c. (or ca.) circa about approximately around cf. confer et al. et alii and others vs. versus as opposed to against in contrast to i.e. id est that is in other words e.g. exempli gratia for example N.B. nota bene please note note well p.a. per annum per year yearly
234 COLUMN A ____________________above/more ____________________aft er ____________________again ____________________against ____________________apart/away ____________________around ____________________backwards ____________________bad/badly ____________________before ____________________between ____________________change ____________________colour ____________________diff erent ____________________equal ____________________fi rst ____________________half ____________________hundred(th) ____________________into/inside COLUMN B
1. circum-
2. pre-
3. fore-
4. ante-
5. anti-
6. contra-
7. counter-
8. auto-
9. co- 10. dis- 11. de- 12. hyper- 13. super- 14. ir- 15. im- 16. in- 17. un- 18. dis- Appendix B: Prefi xes Used in Science Writing Match each prefi x in Column B to the correct meaning in Column A. If two or more prefi xes have the same meaning, they will be listed together. For example poly- and multi- have the same meaning (they both mean many) so they are listed together as 29 and 30 in Column B. Notice that the prefi x dis- appears twice, because it has two diff erent meanings.
Appendix B 235 ____________________large/million ____________________many ____________________new ____________________not ____________________one/single ____________________same ____________________self ____________________similar ____________________thousand ____________________thousandth ____________________time ____________________too ____________________two ____________________far/distant ____________________under ____________________with/together ____________________wrong 19. non- 20. a- 21. an- 22. inter- 23. intr- 24. mal- 25. ill- 26. mis- 27. neo- 28. post- 29. poly- 30. multi- 31. uni- 32. mono- 33. di- 34. bi- 35. semi- 36. re- 37. retro- 38. sub- 39. hypo- 40. infra- 41. hetero- 42. homo- 43. milli- 44. kilo- 45. cent- 46. chron- 47. chrom- 48. iso- 49. equi- 50. over- 51. mega- 52. para- 53. prim- 54. proto- 55. tele- 56. meta-
236 Science Research Writing KEY above/more 12. 13. hyper- super- hyperactive, hyperallergenic supernatural, supersonic aft er 28. post- postgraduate, postwar again 36. re- rebuild, rewrite against
5.
6.
7. anti- contra- counter- antioxidant, antiseptic contradict, contraindication counteract, counterpoint apart/away 10. 11. dis- de- disarmament, disintegrate decompose, dehydrate around
1. circum- circumference, circumnavigate backwards 37. retro- retroactive, retrovirus bad/badly 24. 25. mal- ill- malformed, malfunction ill-defi ned, ill-judged before
2.
3.
4. pre- fore- ante- preexisting, pretest forecast, foresee antechamber, antenatal between 22. inter- interact, interface change 56. meta- metamorphosis, metastasis colour 47. chrom- chromaticity, chromosome diff erent 41. hetero- heterogeneous, heterosexual equal 48 49. iso- equi- isometric, isosceles equidistant, equilateral fi rst 53. 54. prim- proto- primitive, primordial protoplasm, prototype
Appendix B 237 half 35. semi- semi-automatic, semicircle hundred/th 45. cent- centigrade, centimetre into/inside 23. intr- intravenous, introduction large/million 51. mega- megabyte, megaphone many 29. 30. poly- multi- polysaccharide, polyvalent multicoloured, multicellular new 27. neo- neonatal, neo-Darwinism not 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. ir- im- in- un- dis- non- a- an- irrelevant, irreversible imprecise, impure inaccurate, inconsistent unbend, uncouple dissatisfi ed, dissimilar nonexistent, non-standard asymmetrical, atypical anaerobic, anhydrous one/single 31 32 uni- mono- unicellular, uniform monomer, monotone same 42. homo- homogeneous, homosexual self
8. auto- autonomous, autopilot similar 52. para- paramedic, parapsychology thousand 44. kilo- kilogram, kilowatt thousandth 43. milli- millisecond, millimeter time 46. chron- chronological, chronometer too 50. over- overheat, oversimplify
238 Science Research Writing two 33. 34. di- bi- dichloride, dioxide bicarbonate, bisect far/distant 55. tele- telemetry, telescope under 38. 39. 40. sub- hypo- infra- subset, subtitle hypoallergenic, hypothermia infrared, infrastructure with/ together
9. co- coauthor, coordinate wrong 26. mis- misjudge, misread
239 Appendix C: Latin and Greek Singular and Plural Forms Singular Plural alga analysis antenna appendix axis bacterium basis crisis criterion curriculum datum diagnosis formula genus hypothesis index locus matrix medium nucleus ovum phenomenon psychosis radius algae analyses antennae appendices axes bacteria bases crises criteria curricula data diagnoses formulae genera hypotheses indexes/indices loci matrixes/matrices media/mediums nuclei ova phenomena psychoses radii
240 Science Research Writing Singular Plural serum spectrum stimulus thesis vertebra vortex sera spectra stimuli theses vertebrae vortices
241 Appendix D: Useful Verbs accelerate accommodate accompany account for achieve acquire adapt add address adjust adopt aff ect allow alter analyse apply argue arise arrange assemble assess assist associate assume attach attempt corroborate create deal with debate decline decrease defi ne delay demonstrate derive describe design detect determine develop devise discard discover discuss display disprove distribute divide drop eff ect elicit imply improve include incorporate increase indicate infl uence inhibit initiate insert install interpret introduce invert investigate isolate limit link locate maintain manage to match maximise measure minimise mirror propose prove provide publish purchase put forward quantify realise recognise recommend record reduce refi ne refute regulate reinforce relate remain remove repeat report represent resolve restrict retain reveal
242 Science Research Writing avoid bring about broaden calculate carry out categorise cause challenge change choose claim classify collect combine compensate compute concentrate conclude concur conduct confi rm connect to consider consolidate construct contradict contribute control convert correlate correspond eliminate employ enable enhance ensure establish estimate evaluate examine exist expand expect explain explore expose extend extract facilitate fall fi lter fi nd focus on formulate generate give rise to guarantee help to identify illustrate immerse implement miscalculate misjudge misunderstand model modify monitor neglect note observe obtain occur off er operate optimise originate outline outperform overcome overlook peak perform permit plot point out position precede predict prefer prepare present prevent produce review revise rise sample score select separate show simulate solve stabilise state study substitute succeed suggest summarise support test track transfer treat trigger undertake use utilise validate vary verify yield
243 Index of Contents 'a' and 'the' 51–55 adverbs and adverb location 56–57 agentless passives 11–12, 47–50 causality 108–111 citation reference 19–22, 142–143 compound nouns 225–226 connecting sentences 7–11 countable nouns 50–53 evaluation, language of 140–142 frequency, language of 99–102 guide for Authors 44, 91, 199 implications (of Results) 119–120, 147–149, 175–177
in methodology 65–66, 86–87
in results 121–122, 144–147 justifying choices 60–61, 82–83 Latin and Greek words 239–240 location, language of 78–80 modal verbs 158–167 paragraphing 12–15 passive/active use 11–12, 47–50 prefi xes 234–238 prepositions 226–227 pronouns and pro-forms 8
244 Science Research Writing quantity language 102–108 referencing 19–22, 142–143 referring to graphs, tables and fi gures 102–108, 138–142 sequence, language of 94–99 signalling language 7–11 skimming 12–15 spatial location, language of 78–80 titles, creating 224–227 uncountable nouns 50–53 useful verbs 241–242 verb tense 4–7, 18, 20, 23, 48–50, 147, 201–204 'we' 11–12
245 Index of Vocabulary (data not shown) 138 (fi g. 1) 138 (see also fi g. 1) 138 (see fi gs. 1–3) 138 a factor in 109 a few 105 aforementioned 137 a great deal 105 a little 105 a need for 192 a novel step was 85 a number (of) 105, 217 able to 39, 190 above 79 absence of 37 abundant 141 accelerate 140, 141 acceptable 86 accompany 109 according to 85, 138 account for 109 accurate 39, 84, 190, 220 achieve 36, 82, 219, 220 acquire 77 adapt 81, 85, add 81 address 36, 218 adequate 141 adjacent 79 adjust 81, 85 adopt 36 advantage 34, 81, 190 aff ect 109 aft er 98 aft erwards 98, 99 aim 40, 217 align 79 all 77, 84, 140 allow 82, 220 almost 141 almost never 101 almost the same 85 also 11 alter 85 alternative approach 37, 218 although 10, 218 always 84, 100 ambiguous 37 analogous to 188 analyse 36, 218 apart from that 11 apparently 110, 148 applicability 220 apply 36, 81, 193, 220 appreciable 105, 141 appreciably 105 approach 39 appropriate 84, 141, 190 approximately 105 argue 36, 218 arise 109 arrange 81 as 9, 99
246 Science Research Writing as a result (of which) 9 as a rule 100 as anticipated 143 as can be seen from/in fi g. 1 138 as described by/in 85 as detailed in fi g. 1 139 as discussed previously 137 as evident from/in the fi gure 139 as expected 143 as explained by/in 85 as far as possible 87 as few as 105 as illustrated by fi g. 1 139 as in 85 as indicated in. fi g. 1 139 as listed in fi g.1 139 as many as 105 as mentioned earlier 137 as oft en as not 101 as outlined above 137 as predicted by 143 as proposed in 85 as reported by/in 85, 143 as reported (previously) 85, 137 as shown in fi g. 1 139 as soon as 99 as suggested by/in 85 as we can see from/in fi g. 1 139 ascribe to 109 assemble 81, 219 assess 82 assist 190 associate 109, 148 assume 36, 81, 217 at fi rst 98 at least 84, 105 at no time 101 at present 192 at that point 99 at the beginning 98 at the end 99 at the front/back 79 at the same time 99 at the start 98 at times 101 attach 79, 81 attempt 36, 39 attracted much attention 34 attractive 190 attribute to 109 avoid 82 barely 105 barely ever 101 based on 85, 217 basic issue 34 because 9, 82 before long 98 beforehand 98 begin by/with 40 below 79, 105 benefi cial 34, 190 besides 11 better 190, 220 better than 143 beyond the scope of this study 144 bisect 79 border 79 both 77, 84 boundary 79 brief 141 bring about 109 broaden 188 but 10 by contrast 10 by doing..., we were able to 82 by far 105 calculate 36, 81, 219 calibrate 81 can 160 can be applied can be found in 85, 139 can be identifi ed from/in fi g. 1 139 can be observed in fi g. 1 139 can be seen from/in fi g. 1 139 carefully 84 carry out 36, 77, 81
Index of Vocabulary 247 categorise 36 cause 109, 219 caused by 144 central problem 34 challenge 37, 188 change 85, 140 characterise 81 choose 36, 77 chosen for 82 chosen to 82 circular 79 claim 36 classic feature 34 classify 36 clear 141, 190 close (to) 105 close attention is paid to 40 collect 36, 77, 81 combine 81 come from 109 commercial interest 34 commercially available 77 common issue 34 common technique 217 commonly 101 comparable 141, 188 compare 36, 39, 188, 217, 218 compare well 143, 190, 220 comparing fi gs. 1 and 4 shows that 139 compatible with 188 compelling 189 compensate 82 completely 84 complicated 218 comprehensive 190 computationally demanding 37 compute 81 concentrate on 36, 39 conclude 36, 39, 220 concur 143 conduct 36, 77 confi ned to 38 confi rm 36, 82, 143, 188, 190 confused 37 conical 79 connect to 79, 109 consequence 109 consequently 9 consider 36, 218 considerable 105, 141 considerably 105, 141 consistent 141, 143, 188, 220 consolidate 81 constant 84, 140 construct 36, 81, 219 contain 138 contradict 188 contrary to 143 contribute to 109 control 81 convenient 190 converge 79 convert 81 convincing 190 correct 84, 190 correlate 36, 143 correspond 138, 188 corroborate 143, 188 cost-eff ective 190 could 160 could account for 148 could be attributed to 148 could be due to 148 could be explained by 148 could be interpreted as 148 could be seen as 148 could lead to 190 couple (onto) 79 covered with/by 79 create 81, 109 crucial 34, 189 current problem 34 currently in progress 144 currently underway 144 data in fi g. 1 suggest that 139 deal with 36
248 Science Research Writing debate 36 decline 140 decrease 140, 219 defect 37 defi cient 37 defi ne 36 delay 140 demand clarifi cation 38 demonstrate 36, 138, 220 derive 81, 109 describe 36, 39, 218 design 36, 81 desirable 218 despite 10, 144 details are given in 85 detect 36 determine 36, 82, 217 develop 36 devise 77 diff erent 140 diff ers (from) 188 diffi cult 144 diffi culty 37, 218 directly 84 disadvantage 37, 218 disagree 38 discard 81 discover 36 discuss 36, 39, 218 display 138 displayed in fi g. 1 139 disprove 143 distinct 141 distribute 81 divide 81 dominant 141 doubtful 37 downstream (of) 79 dramatic 34, 141, 189 drastic 141 drawback 37, 218 drop 140 due to 9, 109, 144 during the past two decades 34 each (of) 77, 84 each/every time 100 earlier 98 easily (over/under) 105 easy 190 economically important 34 edge 79 eff ect 109 eff ective 39, 190, 220 effi cient 39, 190 elicit 109 eliminate 81 embed 79 emphasise 218 employ 81 enable 39, 82, 190 encased (in) 79 encouraging 190, 192 enhance 36, 82, 190, 220 ensure 82, 190, 220 entirely 84 equal 140 equally spaced 79 equidistant 79 equipment 77 equivalent 141 error 37 essential 34, 141, 218 essentially identical 85 essentially the same 85 establish 36, 82 estimate 36, 81 evaluate 36, 39, 219 even (higher/lower) 105 even so 10 even though 10 eventually 98, 99, 193 every/each 84 evidence for this is in fi g. 1 139 evident 190 evidently 148 exact 190, 220 examine 36, 217, 218 excellent 39, 141, 189
Index of Vocabulary 249 exceptional 141, 189 exceptionally 105, 141 excessive 141 exciting 189 exist 140, 217 expand 140, 188 expect 39 expensive 37 experiments 77 explain 36 explore 36 expose 81 extend 36, 79, 188, 218 extensive 141 extensively studied 34 extract 81 extraordinary 190 extreme 141 extremely (high/low) 105 facilitate 40, 82, 190 facing 79 fail 38 fairly 105, 141 fall 140 fall short of 38 false 37 far (above/below) 105 far from perfect 37 far side/end 79 fastened (to) 79 feasible 190 few 38, 105, 141 fewer (than) 105 fi lter 81 fi nally 99 fi nd 36, 140 fi rmly 84 fi rstly 98 fi tted (with) 79 fi xed (to) 79 fl aw 37 fl exible 190 focus on 34, 36 for a number of years 34 for many years 34 for the fi rst time 220 for the purpose of 82 for the sake of 82 formerly 98 formulate 36, 81, 219 found 77, 140, 219 frequently 34, 84, 101, 217 freshly 84 from fi g. 1 it can be seen that 139 from time to time 101 fruitful 192 fully 84 fundamental issue 34 further investigations 192 further work is needed 192 further work is planned 145, 192 furthermore 11 future directions 221 future work should 145, 192, 221 future work will 145, 192 gap in our knowledge 37 generally 100, 138, 142, 217 generate 36, 77, 81, 109 gently 84 give 138 give rise to 109 given by/in 85, 139 goal 40 goes against 188 good 84, 142 greater (than) 105 growth in popularity 34 guarantee 83, 220 habitually 100 hard to (control) 144 hardly 105 hardly ever 101 have potential 193 have to 160 help to 190
250 Science Research Writing hence 9 here 40 high 142 higher 79, 140 highest 140 holds promise 192 horizontal 79 however 10, 218 ideal 190 identical 84, 85, 140, 143, 188, 219 identify 36, 83, 219 ill-defi ned 37 illustrate 36, 40, 138 immaterial 144 immediately 84, 99 immense 142 immerse 81 imperceptible 141 implement 36, 193 imply 36, 148 important 34, 141, 190 impossible 144 impractical 37, 218, 144 improbable 37 improve 36, 40, 83, 190, 220 in accordance with 85 in addition 11 in advance 98 in an attempt to 82 in contradiction to 188 in contrast to 188 in essence 85 in fi g. 1 we compare/present 139 in front (of) 79 in future, care should be taken 145, 192 in future, it is advised that 145, 192 in general 138 in good agreement 143, 188, 220 in line with 85, 143, 188 in most/all cases 138 in order to 82, 137, 217 in particular 141 in principle 85, 141 in some cases 105 in some circumstances 148 in spite of 10 in the beginning 98 in the end 99 in the front/back 79 in the main 138 in the meantime 99 in the second place 11 in this section 138 in time 98 in view of (the fact that) 9 inaccurate 37, 218 inadequate 37, 141 incapable (of) 37 include 81, 83, 218 incompatible 37 incomplete 37, 144 inconclusive 37 inconsistent 37, 143 inconvenient 37, 218 incorporate 36, 81 incorrect 37 increase 83, 140, 219 increasing number 34 independently 84 indicate 36, 148, 220 individually 84 ineff ective 38 ineffi cient 38 inevitable 144 inevitably 144 inferior 38 infi nitesimal 105, 144 infl exible 38 infl uence 109, 217 infrequently 101 inhibit 81 initially 98 initiate 109 inner 79 innovation 39 insert 81 insignifi cant 144
Index of Vocabulary 251 inspection of fi g. 1 indicates 139 install 81 instruments 77 insuffi cient 38 intention 40 interesting 34, 141, 192 interpret 36 intersect 79 introduce 36, 218 invaluable 190 invariably 100 invert 81 investigate 36, 78, 137, 217 isolate 81 it appears that 110, 141, 148 it may be inferred that 110, 148 it could be assumed that 110, 148 it could be concluded that 148 it could be inferred that 148 it could be speculated that 148 it has recently been shown that 217 it is (very) probable/likely that 110 it is (widely) accepted that 110, 217 it is apparent that 138 it is conceivable that 148 it is evident from the results that 138 it is evident that 148 it is known that 137, 217 it is logical that 148 it is necessary to 38 it is recognised that 110 it may be thought/believed that 110, 220 it is thought/said/recognised that 110 it is widely accepted that 217 it is reasonable to suppose that 110 it is thought that 148 it is/may/can be assumed that 110 it seems (likely) that 110 it seems (highly) probable that 110 it seems plausible that 148 it seems that 148 it should be noted that 144 it should be possible to 218 it was noted that 219 it was possible to 82 it would be benefi cial/useful 192 it would seem/appear that 110 join 79 just 105 just then 99 key technique 34 lack 37 large/ly 141 largely the same 85 lastly 99 later 98, 99 later on 98, 99 lateral 79 lead to 193 leading cause 34 lends support to 188 less 105 less than ideal 144 less than perfect 144 likelihood 141 likely 148 limit 83, 218 limitation 37 link 109 linked to 148 list 138 little 105 little evidence is available 38 little work has been done 38 locate 79, 81 loosely based on 86 low 141 low-cost 190 lower 79, 140 main 141 maintain 81 major issue 34 majority 77 make it possible to 220
252 Science Research Writing manage to 40 many 34, 77 margin 79 marginal 105 marginally (higher/lower) 105 marked 105, 141 markedly 105 match 140, 143 may 160 materials 77 maximise 81 mean (that) 148, 220 meaningless 38 meanwhile 99 measurable 141 measure 36, 81, 219 might 160 mild 141 minimal 141 minimize 40, 81, 83 minor defi cit 144 mirror 188 miscalculate 38 misjudge 38 misleading 38 misunderstand 38 model 36, 77, 219 moderate 105 modify 77, 81, 85, 188 monitor 36 more (than) 105 more oft en than not 101 more or less 85, 141 more work is needed 38 moreover 11 most 34, 77, 105, 141 mounted (on) 79 much 105 much study in recent years 34 must 160 near side 79 nearly 105 necessarily 87 need for (clarifi cation) 37, 217 need to re-examine 38 neglect 38 negligible 105, 141, 144 never 84, 101 nevertheless 10, 144 new 39, 220 next 98 next step 37 no correlation 37 none 140 nonetheless 10 non-existent 38 normalize 81 normally 100 not able to 218 not addressed 38 not always accurate 144 not always reliable 144 not apparent 38 not attempted 144 not completely clear 144 not dealt with 38 not dissimilar (to) 143 not examined 144 not explored in this study 144 not ideal 144 not identical 144 not investigated 144 not once 101 not perfect 144 not precise 144 not repeatable 38 not signifi cant 144, 221 not studied 38 not suffi ciently 38 not the focus of this paper 144 not well understood 38 not within the scope of this study 144 not/no longer useful 38 note 36
Index of Vocabulary 253 noticeable 105, 141 noticeably 105, 141 notwithstanding 10 novel 39, 190, 220 now and then 101 nowadays 34 numerous 105 numerous investigations 34 objective 40 observe 36, 219 obstacle 37 obtain 36, 77, 81, 83, 219, 220 obvious 141 occasionally 101 occupy 79 occur 140, 217, 219 of great concern 34 of growing interest 34 of little value 38 of no consequence 144 of no/little signifi cance 144 off er 40, 190 off er a means of 82 oft en 34, 101, 217 on account of (the fact that) 9 on both sides 79 on each side 79 on each/every occasion 100 on either side 79 on no occasion 101 on some occasions 101 on the front/back 79 on the other hand 10 on the right/left 79 on the whole 138 on top (of) 79 once 98 one of the best-known 34 one way to avoid 82 only 84, 105, 141, 144 operate 81 opposite 79 optimize 81 organised as follows 39 originally 98 originate in 109 ought to 160 our aim was to 82 our approach 217 out of range 79 outer 79 outline 40 outperform 190 outstanding 190 over 79, 105 over the past ten years 34 overcome 36, 83 overlook 38 over-simplistic 38 overview 40 overwhelming 141, 189 owing to 148 parallel 79, 143 particularly 105 peak 140 perfect 189 perform 36, 78, 219 perhaps 148 permit 83 perpendicular 79 placed 79 play a key role 34 play a major part 34 plenty 105 plot 81, 139 point out 36 poor 38, 141 popular 34, 217 position 79, 81 possibility 110 possible benefi ts 34 possible direction 192 possible source of error 144 possibly 148
254 Science Research Writing potential applications 34 potential use 220 potentially 148 powerful 34, 39, 142, 189 practical 39 practically 85, 105 precede 140 precisely 84 predict 36, 40, 137 prefer 36 preliminary attempt 144, 221 prepare 81 present 36, 40, 139, 140, 218, 219 present work 39 presented in detail 39 presumably 148 prevent 83 previously 98 prior to 98 probably 148 problem 37, 218 problematic 38 produce 36, 109, 140, 193, 217, 219 productive 190 profi table 34 project 39 promising 192 propose 36, 40, 218 prove 36, 143, 188, 190 provide 36, 40, 78, 83, 139 provide a framework 190 provide a way of 82 provide compelling evidence 148 provide insight into 188, 190 provide the fi rst evidence 190 provides support for 188 publish 36 purchase 78 purpose 40 put forward 36 quantify 81 questionable 38 quick 142 quite 105 radical 142 randomly 84 range 34 rapid 34, 142 rapidly 84 rarely 101 rather time-consuming 87 realize 36 realistic 190 reason 137 reasonable results were obtained 144 reasonably 105 recent decades 34 recent research 217 recent studies 217 recently 34, 217 recognize 36 recommend 36, 192 record 36, 81, 219 rectangular 79 reduce 83, 140 redundant 38 refi ne 85 refute 143, 188 regardless of 10 regularly 100 regulate 81 reinforce 143 relate 109 related to 148, 217 relatively 105 relevant 190, 220 reliably 84 remain constant 140 remain to be (identifi ed) 192 remain unstudied 38 remarkable 34, 141, 189 remove 81, 83 remove the need for 190 repeat 81
Index of Vocabulary 255 repeated 84 repeatedly 100 report 36, 39, 139, 218 represent 139, represent a new approach to 190 require 218 require clarifi cation 38 research opportunities 192 resembling 141 restrict 38, 81 result from 109 result in 109, 219 result of 109 results are given in fi g. 1 139 retain 81 reveal 36, 40, 139, 190 review 36, 218 revise 36, 85 rigorously 84 rise 140 risk 37, 218 robust 190 room for improvement 145 rule out 190 sample 77, 81 satisfactory 141 scarce 141 scarcely ever 101 score 81 secondly 11, 98 section 39 seem to 148 seen 140 seldom 101 select 81 selected on the basis of 82 separate 81, 84 serious 141 set out as follows 39 severe 141 sharp 141 shortly aft er 98 should 160 should be explored 192 should be replicated 192 should be validated 192 should be verifi ed 192 show 36, 139, 218 side 79 signifi cant 34, 105, 141, 220 signifi cantly 105, 141 similar 85, 141, 143, 188 simple 40, 141, 190, 220 simulate 36, 81 simultaneously 99 since 9 situated 79 slight 105 slight mismatch 145 slightly disappointing 145 slightly modifi ed 85 slightly 221 small 105 smooth/ly 84, 141 so 9, 82, 105 so (high/low) 105 so as to 82 so that 82 sole 140 solve 36, 190 some 105 sometimes 101 somewhat 105, 141, 145 soon 98, 193 stabilize 81 stable 190 starting point 192 state 36 steep 141 stem from 109 straight away 99 straightforward 40, 190 striking 34, 141, 189 strong 141, 190, study 36, 39, 217, 219
256 Science Research Writing subsequently 98 substantial 105, 141 substantially 105, 141 substitute 81 succeed 40, 190 successful 40, 190 successfully 84 such that 82 sudden 141 suff er 38 suffi cient 141 suggest 36, 148, 220 suitable 84, 141, 220 summarise 139 superior 190, 220 supplied 78 support 36, 143, 148, 188, 190 surprising 141, 189 surrounded (by) 79 take advantage of 82 technicality 145 tend to 148 tendency 141, 148 tends to refute 188 test 36, 77 the aim of this study 217 the evidence points to 110 the evidence suggests that 110 the fi rst of its kind 188 the majority of 141 the next stage 192 the overall response was 138 the results are divided into two parts 138 the same as that of/in 85 then 98 there is a strong possibility that 110 there is an urgent need 38 there is evidence to indicate that 110, 148 there is growing concern 38 there seems to be/is a tendency to 110 thereby 82 therefore 9, 82 this implies/seems to imply that 110 this is not the case 38 thoroughly 84 though 10 thus 82 tightly 84 time-consuming 38, 218 tip 79 to begin with 98 to some extent 105 to start with 98 to the right/left 79 today 34 too 141 towards the end 98 track 81 traditional 34 transfer 81 treat 81, 219 trials 77 trigger 109 typical 34 unaff ected 140, 219 unanswered 38 unavailable 144 unavoidable 144 uncertain 38 unchanged 140 unclear 38 undeniable 189, 190 under 79, 105 underneath 79 undertake 36 uneconomic 38 unexpected 141, 144 unfortunately 38, 144 unfounded 38 uniform 140 uniformly 84 unimportant 145 unique 189 unlike 143, 188
Index of Vocabulary 257 unlikely 38, 148 unnecessary 38 unprecedented 189 unpredictable 144 unproven 38 unrealistic 38 unresolved 38 unsatisfactory 38 unsolved 38 unsuccessful 38, 218 unsupported 38 unusual 142, 189 unworkable 144 upon 99 upper 79 upstream 79 upwards of 105 urgent 192 use 36, 193, 219, 220 useful 34, 190 using the method 85, 138 usually 34, 100 utilise 36, 81, 193 valid 190 validate 83, 143, 220 valuable 40, 142, 190 vary 81, 85, 140 verify 143, 188 vertical 79 very 142 vigorously 84 virtually 85, 105, 142 visible in fi g. 1 139 vital 34, 189 we could infer that 148 we have confi dence that 148 we observe from fi g. 1 that 139 weakness 37 well (under/over) 105 well-documented 34 well-known 34 what is more 11 when 99 whereas 10 which is why 9 while 10, 99 widely recognized 34 widespread 34 with some adjustments 85 with some alterations 85 with some changes 85 with some modifi cations 85 with the aim of 217 with the intention of 82 within range (of) 79 without exception 100 work 40 worthwhile 34, 192 would seem to suggest/indicate 148 yet 10 yield 109, 190, 219